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NEW AND COMPLETE 



GRAMMAR 



FRENCH TONGUE 



NEW AND COMPLETE 

GRAMMAR 

OF THE 

FRENCH TONGUE; 

IN WHICH 

THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE LANGUAGE IS REDUCED 

TO ITS 

SIMPLEST PRINCIPLES, 

BY NEW AND PLAINER RULES, 

To facilitate the American or English Pupil in becoming acquainted 

WITH ITS PECULIARITIES. 

CONTAINING BESIDES 

NEW RULES 

ON PRONUNCIATION ; ON THE GENDER OF THE NOUNS J ON THE NATURE 
AND USE OF THE ARTICLES, PRONOUNS, VERBS, PARTICIPLES, &C. 

A NEW METHOD 

OF LEARNING THE IRREGULAR VERBS WITH GREATER FACILITY; 

An accurate List of those expressions* in ivhich Foreigners are generally 
found deficient* 

AND THE 

SOLUTION OF MANY DIFFICUTIES 
HITHERTO UNEXPLAINED. 



THE THIRD EDITION, CORRECTED, ENLARGED, AND IMPROVED. 



BY JOSEPH F. A. B €E IT F 

Teacher of the French Langua^k M 



" Tolle lege." 



NEW-YORK : 

SOLD EY THE PUBLISHER, NO. 29, MURRAY-STREET J AND CH. DE BEHB, 

NO. 102, BROADWAY; BERARD AND MONDON, NO. 36, CORTLANDT- 

STREET J AND THE PRINCIPAL BOOKSELLERS. 




1834. 






Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year one thousand eight hun- 
dred and thirty-four, by Joseph F. A. Bceuf, in the Clerk's Office of the Southern 
District of New-York. 



/ Iw 



NEW-YORK : 
HENRY LUDWIG, PRINTER, 

No. 72, Vesey-street. 



PREFACE. 



This Preface to the Third Edition of my Grammar will 
contain but a part of that prefixed to the Second Edition, viz. 
that which relates to the plan and object of this Grammar. 

C£ My opinion on languages is this. 

" A language is the form that ideas assume as soon as they 
I can be expressed by words. 

" Our ideas become so identified with our mother tongue, 
that we soon lose the means of expressing them differently than 
by the words we are accustomed to use ; which makes our 
mother tongue the medium through which our ideas are 
transmitted. 

" This explains why the English language, spoken by the 
French, is most generally French translated into English 5 why 
a foreigner does not ask how such a want, such a desire may 
be expressed, but how such a phrase may be rendered into the 
language he wishes to learn. 

" This point being once established, nothing remains to be 
done by the teacher of languages, but to help the student to 
translate his own language into another. Such is the task 
which I have imposed on myself. 

" But, to discharge this duty, by using the grammars that 
have ever come under my observation, was, I found, utterly 
impracticable. 

" In all the grammars I am acquainted with, I found the fol- 
lowing radical objections. 



11 PREFACE. 

" They are generally translations of French grammars into 
English; they do not present any regular system of compari- 
son between the English and the French languages ; they give 
directions, either by rules or by signs, to translate the exer- 
cises contained in them, but never to translate the language 
itself; they very seldom answer one of the thousand difficul- 
ties which arise in the mind of the learner ; and it seems, 
indeed, as if they never had been used by their authors them- 
selves. 

" In order to proceed with my plan, it was necessary to 
answer all objections, to clear all difficulties; this I have 
endeavoured to do. My grammar will, upon examination, be 
found to contain upwards of one hundred new rules, upon 
very important difficulties which have never been treated of 
by former grammarians; and it is in consideration of this fact, 
indeed, that I claim for my work the title of a new Grammar." 

But as what precedes may not be sufficient to show at once 
what advantage is to be derived from the use of this work, pro- 
per directions will follow, to which not only the teachers and 
the students are referred, biit also the principals of institutions, 
and any who are interested in the important subject of teaching. 



DIRECTIONS 

FOR THE US'E OF THIS GRAMMAR. 



It is not for experienced teachers that these Directions are intended. 
All those who have been engaged in teaching for a number of years, 
must of course possess the same advantages as myself; and I cannot 
lay claim to any such pretension as that of communicating to them any 
of the secrets of the difficult art of teaching. But among those of our 
countrymen who devote themselves to the profession that I have adopt- 
ed, there are many who have at first but little idea of the difficulty they 
will encounter, in the attempt to make a French scholar of every stu- 
dent taken indiscriminately from among the community. To that class 
of instructers, the experience of six years may be of some assistance, 
and to them it is particularly dedicated. 

The principal and first object that naturally presents itself to the 
mind of the teacher of a language, is the selection of a good method of 
imparting to his pupils a correct knowledge of it. But, in this age of 
discoveries and improvements, so many systems have been successively 
laid before the public, that this choice is not by any means an easy 
task, no one being naturally desirous of judging without having tried 
every means of comparison. It may be, therefore, necessary to examine 
here the principal methods that have at different periods attracted the 
public attention. 

Some teachers, whose success is still a problem, have obtained scho^ 
lars by publishing, that they would communicate a thorough knowledge 
of the language in a small number of lessons, by a method known to 
themselves only, which will be found, upon reflection, to be nothing by 
itself, save the rash promise of making, of any fool, a sensible man, in 
a given time. Others, discarding the old methods, professed to teach the 
French by the mere interlinear translation of any particular author ; 
thus leaving the pupil to discover or not the grammatical arrangement 
of the phrases, and freeing themselves of the most important part of the 
4uty of the instructer. These have, likewise, obtained some success by 



IV DIRECTIONS. 

sheltering themselves behind the great name of Locke, who certainly 
never thought that philosophy had anything to do with money-making. 
At last, (and without condescending to examine a number of epheme- 
ral modes of instruction,) let us come to a bolder genius, who, elevating 
himself into a higher sphere, announced the discovery of the very method 
of Nature, which method, if found, must certainly be far superior to that 
of any of my fellow-mortals. On this system it will be necessary to 
dwell a little longer than on the others, on account of the influence 
which blustering words have at all times possessed over the minds of 
those who are indifferent as regards their application. 

A language, as I said in my Preface, is the form that ideas assume 
as soon as they can be expressed by words. But ideas are associations 
which are determined by our wants and judgments ; and Nature, whose 
works are sublime, because they are those of the Creator, has made lan- 
guage the subject of her most particular care, by allowing to man a much 
longer time to learn his vernacular tongue, than we may be willing to 
grant at first examination. For, in fact, what is the language of a child 
three years old? It cannot be that which a man wants to learn, nor 
does a man want to acquire the language of a child six or ten years old. 
He needs that language which will express all the wants of the different 
situations in which he is placed — wants that can be so little understood 
by a child which has reached even the age of ten years, that a foreigner 
would renounce the idea of employing, as an interpreter to transact 
business, a child of that age, who, since his ideas and judgments are 
determined by his own wants, knows of the language no farther than 
he has occasion for. This truth, that Nature takes a very long time to 
make us acquainted with our native tongue, can escape those only 
who never seek for it. It is even so obvious that, without giving here 
any of the thousand proofs which could be produced on the subject, it 
will simply be added, that, in order to teach a foreign language, by fol- 
lowing the process of Nature, it would be indispensable to place a man 
in all the situations which she prepared for him, unless it be presump- 
tuously undertaken to do better than Nature herself. 

1 know that the pretenders to the throne of Nature may scorn my 
simplicity, and say, We do not teach like Nature ; we only imitate her 
B. But how is this? Can you implant in the mind of your pupil 
a ii' ■ w ond isolated way of expressing his ideas, or do you simply intend 
to make him translate his words ? If it be the latter result you aim at, 
you do no better than any body else. Why do you then boast so much 
of the great discovery ? Nature does not translate words into others, 
but desires or wants into words. If it be words that you wish to trans- 
late, explain yourselves, and we will all agree. Is it a new mode of 



DIRECTIONS. V 

translation that you have discovered ? That may be ; but it is not 
what you first promised : you have used deception. By translating 
words into words, you do what I do myself. Let us then see who will 
best succeed. 

I may, without carrying this examination any farther, come to this 
conclusion, that a person who wishes to learn a language, wants no- 
thing but to express his ideas in other words than those he would ac- 
tually use in his vernacular tongue, whatever may be his age, educa- 
tion, or wants. 

I therefore simply undertook to assist the student in accomplishing 
this object. I published a Grammar, because I conscientiously believed 
that there were none fit for that purpose, for the reasons explained in the 
Preface; but the manner in which this Grammar must be used, should 
be understood by any one who wishes to obtain a satisfactory result; 
because an instrument, though ever so good, must be properly handled 
to produce the desired effect. 

The best way will be to mention in this place the manner in which 
I use it myself, in favour of which, the pronoun J, will, I hope, be 
excused. 

Whenever I undertake to teach a new scholar, or commence with a 
class, I take the whole responsibility of his or their progress on myself. 
As I cannot, in all instances, rely upon the pupils to exercise their own 
intelligence, in finding the analogy existing between the different parts 
of the language, I proceed upon the principle that they will or can 
know nothing but what I teach them ; and as I suppose that they will 
forget, I must not give them time to do so. There is another difficulty 
I have to contend with. If the pupils should not be immediately ini- 
tiated into some of the pleasant parts of the study, they would become 
disgusted and discouraged, and their spirits being once gone, could not 
be easily recalled. I have, 'therefore, selected the following plan, which 
will be found explained in different parts of the Grammar. 

It will be important to say, that all that follows relates to the instruc- 
tion given to a class of ten scholars, and may be afterwards applied by 
the teacher to a smaller number, or even to a single pupil. 

On the first meeting, the students being seated round the table, I 
direct them to open their grammars, page 13th, and I begin to read 
aloud myself what is said of the accents, down to the words, Of Quan- 
tity, page 14th. Then we omit all that which relates to Quantity, and 
pass to page 19th, Of Syllabication,, the first two rules of which I read 
aloud as before. This being done, the grammars must be opened, page 
21st, and each of the pupils, in his turn, repeat one of the letters which 
J first pronounce distinctly, according to the old system, as explained 

1* 



VI BIRECTIONS. 

page 20th. I afterwards make each of the pupils pronounce distinctly,, 
and after me, the five vowels alone ; and then proceed to read the 
pages 21st to 25th inclusively. But, in order that the sounds may be 
well understood, I make each of the students read one of the words 
given as examples ; and thus go round the class, without confusion. 
Suppose, for instance, that we have come to the 1st example, page 22d, 
I make the first pupil, at my left, repeat after me the word mime; the 
second pupil will repeat tete ; the third, tetu, &c. ; and the ninth, peste. 
I then continue reading, and give to the tenth pupil the word dessus. 
Then, returning to the first, I give him the word dessous ; to the second, 
ressort ; and so on, going round the class, and always commencing, at 
each new example, by the person next to the last who read. It is 
true that each person does not read all the words ; but, if they are all 
attentive, they will all repeat, after a while, the same sounds in differ- 
ent words, which will amount to the same. Two or three words could 
be given at once, instead of one, in the same manner. 

If it be a class of young pupils I have to teach, I generally write now, 
upon a black board, several words, such as percerette, ecervele, <^c, and re- 
quest them to find out the unaccented e's that are grave, and those that 
are mute, by applying the rules on the division of syllables, and those on 
the letter e. I afterwards write such words as inattention, inanition, #c, 
in order to enable them to distinguish the vowels followed by worm that 
are nasal, from those that are not, according to the rules. 

In classes of grown persons, I postpone this operation until the second 
lesson, when I use it as a sort of review of what was seen in the first 
lesson, and I immediately proceed to the compound vowels and diph- 
thongs, page 28th, which I read, as before, through the words given as 
examples, page 29th, which are likewise repeated by the pupils. Then 
we read what is said of the letter y, page 33d ; and as the learners are 
thereby prepared to r ad the verb avoir, to have, page 91st, I make 
them read after me part of this verb, through the preterit anterior, each 
of them repeating a whole tense. Here it is necessary to go several 
times round the class, in order that each should have the advantage of 
reading more than one tense. That part of the verb to have is given to 
be committed to memory for the next lesson. 

All that precedes in the above paragraph is likewise given to young 
pupils, in the first lesson, but only after the explanations on the board ; 
and, if no useless interruption has taken place, the whole will not occu- 
py more than the hour, or the fifty-five minutes of the lesson. 

As with grown students I omit the explanations on the black board, 
in the first lesson, I pass, immediately after reading the verb to have, to 
page 49th, on the contents of which I give a verbal explanation, and 



DIRECTIONS. VII 

which I direct the pupils to read, down to the word fire-brand, page 52d, 
for the next lesson. I then read aloud chapter 2d, page 62d, down to 
the exercise, explaining the manner of distinguishing between h mute 
and h aspirated, and conclude by giving, to translate into French, for 
the second lesson, five or six lines of the first exercise, page 63d, 
When dismissing the class, I repeat that they have, 1st, to learn a part 
of the verb avoir; 2d, to read the rules on the gender ; 3d, to read part 
of chapter ii., and to write part of the exercise ; and, at last, to go over 
all the rules of pronunciation that have been read in the first lesson, in 
order to understand the theory of that part of the pronunciation. I, 
moreover, advise them to read all the preliminary observations. I have 
learned by experience, that all that precedes will not exceed the limits 
of the hour allowed for the first lesson, and that the task given to the 
pupil can" be accomplished by him in one hour, or one hour and a-half. 
I do not, however, advise always to make the first lesson as long as 
directed above. The teacher may divide it as he pleases. 

As the classes generally meet but three times a- week, there is a 
whole clay left to prepare the lesson ; and on the second meeting, if the 
class be composed of young students, I first ask them questions on the 
different things they had to review, using the board for this purpose : 
then I hear them recite the part of the verb to have, that they have 
[learned, each reciting one tense, going round the class ; after which, I 
give them, to commit to memory, for the third lesson, the whole, or 
part, of the rest of the verb avoir, with the rules on gender, as far as 
the word fire-brand, leaving, until the third lesson, to give some exercise 
to write. Some few pages of the pronunciation, viz., the remarks on 
the letters n or m, pages 26th and 27th, can be read to the class, as 
directed before. , 

(The directions given page 20th can be consulted.) 

As, after this, the same exercises, with the only difference of their 
length, must be appointed for students of all descriptions, I will not 
make any further distinction of the age of the pupils, leaving the whole 
management to the sagacity of the instructer. But, in all cases, what 
follows must be strictly attended to, either on the second, third, or 
fourth lesson, when the students bring part of the first exercise 
written. 

As the members of the classes cannot be expected to be all assem- 
bled during the first minute of the lesson, I always begin by examining 
the exercises of those who are present. I commence with the first at 
my left, look at his exercise-book, and mark each wrong word by a 
little cross which I place over it, without speaking. If I discover that r 
on account of the imperfection of dictionaries, a wrong or obsolete word 



viii DIRECTIONS. 

has been introduced, I correct it, and explain to the class why another 
word is preferable. I then return the exercise-book to the first student, 
whom I desire to correct his own faults, by consulting the rules of his 
grammar ; and while he is thus engaged, I look at the next exercise, 
which I mark in the same manner, and go round the class, always 
leaving the pupil to correct his own faults. This operation leaves to 
every body time enough to arrive ; and when every exercise has been 
looked at, I return to the first pupil and see whether he has or not cor- 
rected all his errors ; in the latter case, I rectify them myself, and 
explain the reason of the corrections. After having thus once more 
gone round the class, I hear the verb recited, each person present 
repeating one tense. The whole of this operation, if properly managed, 
will not occupy more than the first half-hour ; and if any one comes 
too late to have his exercise examined with the rest, he has to leave it 
with me, to be corrected after the lesson, and returned on the next 
meeting. In some cases I correct it immediately, without giving any 
explanation. It is very important, in a class, never to allow any one 
to encroach upon the time that belongs to all its members. 

We now come to the most important part of the lesson. The first 
half-hour having been spent in this manner, every one must shut his 
book, and I pronounce distinctly one of the short French phrases^ 
written in the exercise, or any one formed by the combination of ihm 
same words, which I ask the first pupil, at my left, to translate imme- 
diately into English. Then another phrase is pronounced for the 
second pupil, another for the third, &c, going at least twice round the 
class. The following phrases, formed with the words of the first five 
lines of the first exercise, may serve as models. Vous avez une vigne 
dans le jar din. Elle a unfrere. Lefermieraun cheval. Ilavaitune 
sceur. Its ont eu une satisfaction. La modiste avait un frere. Nous 
avons une vache, #c. If the phrase cannot be translated by the pupil to 
whom it is given, I translate it myself, and pass to another pupil. 
English phrases similar to these are afterwards given round the class, 
to be translated into French, until but ten minutes of the hour remain. 
Then five minutes are spent in reading the future, conditional, their com- 
pounds, and the imperative mood, which must be committed to memory 
for the next lesson. The five minutes remaining are destined to read 
part of the rules on pronunciation. On dismissing the class, I give the 
six or seven next lines of the exercise to write for the next lesson. 

Should any unforeseen circumstance prevent the accomplishment of 
any of these points, the deficiency must be repaired on the ensuing 
lesson. 

I now suppose that the class meet again after this, and bring the 



DIRECTIONS. IX 

second third of the first exercise, written. The teacher (for I may 
now leave the J aside) should correct this exercise as directed above? 
hear the verb recited, and ask new phrases in French and in English, to 
be translated by the pupils, including some words of the past lesson 
among the new ones, until a quarter of an hour only remains to be 
spent with the class. He should then direct the students to open their 
grammars at page 95th, where avoir is partly conjugated negatively, 
and make the pupils read after him, and in turn, the tenses of this verb 
put down on this page, warning thern that the subjunctive mood 
may be neglected for the present, for want of their being able to use it 
for some time. Then, passing te-^age 92d,he will show how to make 
the rest of the verb to have negative, and give this verb, through the im- 
perative, to be learned negatively for the next lesson. The time remain- 
ing should be spent in reading some of the rules on pronunciation. 

On the next meeting, all having been managed as usual, always mix- 
ing some of the old words and phrases in the new questions, and the 
last quarter of an hour remaining to be employed, it will be necessary 
to give an explanation on the exercise, page 65th, noticing all the 
difficulties that the pupil will have to surmount, particularly those on 
the prepositions de and «, and the new rules on gender, indicated at 
the head of this- exercise ; after which, half of this exercise will be 
given for the next time. It might be as well simply to read aloud the 
explanations, page 63d, 64th, and 6tfith. 

It is generally at tins period that I commence to make use of the 
French Reader, intended to accompany the Grammar. I therefore 
would, on that evening, instead of giving a verb to be learned, read, 
with the class the first column of the Vocabulary, page 39th of the 
Reader, which should be committed to memory, for the next lesson. 

With regard to the Reader, in order that it should occupy as little 
time as possible, it would be well to divide each of its lessons into 
three parts, as indicated in the following lines, for the first lesson. 

Give one column of the Vocabulary, page 39th, to be committed to 
memory, and recited round the class, in turn, as usual. On the day 
when this is heard, the second column will be given for the next lesson ; 
and on the third day, only the lesson, page 40th, will be read, accord- 
ing to the directions given, page 38th of the Reader. On the evening 
when this lesson is read, there will be very little or no time left for ask- 
ing phrases ; but as this will take place only once a-week, that import- 
ant part of the instruction will not be materially neglected. 

The class was left when the first column of the vocabulary of the 

I Reader was to be learned instead of a verb ; but this omission of the 

verb must not take place too often, as it is desirable that the class 



X DIRECTIONS. 

should for the future have their verbs learned or written a few even- 
ings before they write the exercises in which they are used. For this 
purpose, the verb avoir, interrogative, should be given on the next 
meeting, together with the second column of the vocabulary of the 
Reader. 

Now, as it is expected that all that precedes has been well under- 
stood by the teacher, farther directions will be unnecessary, as every 
exercise is preceded by what is indispensable to know before writing 
it. The instructer may even, in some cases, deviate a little from the 
course that I have laid down in the preceding pages ; but in no instance 
must he omit asking phrases, for more than one lesson, intermixing 
always some of the old words and past difficulties j for, without this 
precaution, all would soon be forgotten, and the pains taken on both 
sides entirely lost. 

Before learning the verb parler, it would be well to give the subjunc- 
tive of the two auxiliaries to be learned, and this mood should not, for 
the future, be omitted either in reciting or writing verbs. 

As soon as the class have arrived at the sixth lesson of the Reader, 
in which are placed the most important verbs that are used in the 
explanations given at every lesson by the teacher, the latter should 
make it his particular study, always to use, in French, those phrases, 
with the construction and the words of which the learner is now 
acquainted. In this manner, the student will have continually to hear 
the same words, and will not, therefore, have as much chance to forget 
them. 

But although, by following this laborious plan, the most satisfactory 
results are obtained during the first quarter, the beginning of the 
second term may present new difficulties, on account of the necessity 
of introducing new scholars into the class, to supply the place of those 
who will not continue. After a little experience in teaching, it will be, 
however, easy to distinguish who can be put in the old classes, without 
interfering or suffering. The new-comers must, of course, be taken 
either amongst old scholars, who had to leave off at a preceding period, 
or must be persons who have studied before with other teachers. 

Should any in the class have written more exercises than the rest, 
they might be kept waiting a while, by giving them compositions to 
write on the Third Part of the Grammar. This course must, at all 
events, be taken with the whole class, at the period and in the manner 
indicated, page 352d of the Grammar. The difficulty of introducing 
new members into classes will occur at the close of each term, and be 
obviated in the same manner. 

^.ssoon as all the exercises have been written^ which must occur 



t . 



DIRECTIONS. XI 

towards the beginning of the third quarter, a different course must be 
followed. The exercises will be read, in French, by the pupils, out of 
the grammar, and without the assistance of any book. They must of 
course be prepared before coming to the class, as a part of the lessons : 
compositions on the Third Part of the Grammar, will continue to be 
written, and the lessons of the Reader may be given longer. Letters 
will be dictated to the students, who will have to answer them. These 
compositions or answers will be left with the teacher, who will correct 
them after the lessons, in order to return them at the next meeting. 

At this period, the learners will have to be provided with a French 
■ book. I have found The Legons Frangaises, recueilles par C. Berard, an 
excellent work for my purpose. The students may translate it in the 
classes ; but I have found it very benericial for them to study and learn 
the lesson appointed, in such a manner, that any French question that 
may be asked by me, and relating to the narration, or anecdotes that 
compose. the lesson, can be answered by them in the same language. 
The conversation becomes thereby interesting, and is not in want of 
subject. 

At the close of the fourth quarter, all the exercises must have been 
read, and all the subjects of composition exhausted ; and, moreover, the 
students must be so far advanced, that they will not have any thing 
new to learn from their instructer, either in writing or speaking, and 
must practise themselves in both as much as they can. 

This fact might appear singular if I could not add, that I am in the 
habit of never granting a fifth quarter to any scholar, unless the first 
one be entirely lost through negligence or any other cause. I can 
therefore say, that all those of my pupils who speak French, and very 
good French, (they are now numerous enough,) have not had more ad- 
vantage from me. I could even produce the names of many persons 
who, being totally unacquainted with the French language when they 
commenced, have become very good, or tolerably good scholars, after 
three, two, and even one quarter. To explain this, I will add, that I am 
in the habit of allowing every industrious scholar to write and learn as 
much as he wishes ; but, in order not to interfere with the class, I cor- 
rect his exercises separately, and promote him to a higher class, as soon 
as he is able to join it. I have seen students going through the four 
classes in one quarter, and these alone have sent me afterwards whole 
classes of scholars to repay me for my care. One good scholar is a 
better recommendation than the efforts of a hundred bad ones. 

What precedes does not relate to those of my pupils whom I teach in 
schools; for it cannot be expected that their judgment is as correct, and 



Xll DIRECTIONS. 

their industry as constant, as that of grown persons. I, of course, take 
more time with these, to obtain the same success. 

Should the teacher who may be willing to adopt this method, have to 
teach a very large class of young students, he might have his pupils 
interchange their books, and would write the correction of the exercises 
on a board, from which the pupils would correct. When, in a young 
ladies' school, there is a French instructress, besides the teacher, it is 
not difficult to come to an understanding as to the division of the 
business. 

If the teacher should have to take in a school an old class of such 
children as have written for years and years the exercises of Levizac's 
Grammar, without understanding them, and translated Perrin's Fables, 
or learned Dialogues, in search of the French language, the best way 
would be for him to consider them as beginners, and go over the 
whole of the course of instruction with them. 

But should he be made to understand, by those who have some inte- 
rest in it, that more pupils can be accommodated, at once, by the method of 
fables, that the children like it better, and that nothing new in the world can 
be invented, he should have to think that, upon his refusal, the class 
might fall into worse hands, and ought to accept it under the proposed 
conditions. Let him, however, understand, that the only thing that he 
can reasonably expect, from his scholars, is the payment of their quarter 
bills. 






PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS 

ON 
ACCENTS, QUANTITY, AND SYLLABICATION. 



*The age of the pupil may render it necessary to omit, at first, part of 
these observations, but what is said of accents and syllabication is 
indispensable. The whole of what follows must, nevertheless, 
be understood by the pupil, in the course of the instruction, and 
as early as possible. It will be necessary for the students to hear 
from the teacher the French words used as examples, in order to 
give the proper sound to the letters. Illustrations on the board 
may be found useful. 

Of Accents. 

What the French understand by accent may be reduced to 
what follows. The accents, in French are three signs, 
placed over the vowels for different purposes. They are 
the circumflex, ( A ) the grave ( v ) and the acute .('). 

The circumflex accent can be found over any of the five 
vowels, and simply indicates that there was, formerly, in the 
same syllable, a letter that has been suppressed ; but the let- 
ter e, which has different sounds, is always grave, when 
marked with a circumflex accent. The words pate, paste ; 
meme, same; &pitre, epistle; hate, host; and mure, mul* 
berry; were formerly spelt paste, mesme, epistre, hoste, 
meure. 

The grave accent is found over a, e, and a. It gives a 
grave sound to e, Ex. pere, father ; but is used over a and 
u, in order to distinguish some monosyllables from others, 
of the same orthography but of different signification. Ex. 
la, there ; la, the ; ou, where ; ou, or. 

What do the French understand by accent ?— How many accents are there in 
French?— What are they ?— What does the circumflex accent indicate ?— Give 
an example of it ?— Over which of the five vowels can it be found ?— What 
sound has e marked with this accent ? — Over which vowels can the grave accent 
be found? — What sound does it give to e?— What is the use of the grave accent 
*o vera and w? 

2 



14 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 

The acute accent is found only over the letter e, to which 
it gives an acute sound ; as cafe, coffee. 

N. B. Rules will be given under the head of the letter E, for plac- 
ing the accents over that letter* 

The French language does not therefore possess accent, 
such as was understood by the ancients, and is now foufld 
in the English, Italian, Spanish languages, &c. viz: a cer- 
tain inflection of the voice, which makes in a word, one 
syllable more forcible than the others. In the English 
word accident, for instance, the accent is on the first syl- 
lable ; it is on the second in imprudent, and on the third in 
continental. But these words, which have been selected, 
because they belong to both languages, have no accent in 
French, that is to say, no syllable more forcible than the 
others : the voice must therefore rest on the last syllable. 
Read the French words accident, imprudent, continental. 

Observe that when the word ends in e mute (an e without 
an accent,) as that e is silent, the voice rests on the vowel 
which precedes the mute e. Read inexpugnable, sensible. 

There are, however, in each phrase, words that must be pronounced 
with more stress than others, according to the sense of the phrase, and 
their peculiar importance in the discourse ; but this, being the same in 
all languages, cannot present any difficulty to the student. There are, 
besides, words that have different meanings, which can only be distin- 
guished by a peculiar inflection of the voice : this will be treated of in 
a separate article. 

Of Quantity. 

It would be well that French grammarians, instead of 
giving on quantity, an imitation of the Greek and Latin 
rules, should come to an understanding on this subject, 
and should conclude at last that there is, in French, no 
quantity, that is to say, long and short vowels : the only ex- 
ception to the uniformity of the length and sound of French 
vowels being a slight swelling of the voice in pronouncing 
some of the vowels marked with a circumflex accent. The 
origin of this exception will be examined shortly. 

N. B. The additional sound communicated to vowels, by a follow- 
On which of the five vowels is the acute accent found?— What sound does 
it communicate to that letter ?— What is the accent in the English language ? 
Over which syllable does the voice rest in reading a French word?— How is it 
when the word ends in e mute ?— What is Quantity in French? — Are all vowels. 
of exactly the same length and sound?-— In what do they differ ?-— When doe&> 
that take place ? 



PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 15 

mg e mute, and which has nothing in common with this subject, will 
likewise be spoken of hereafter. 

It does not enter into the plan of this book to investigate 
whether the French language has ever really possessed 
quantity. The main point is to show that the syllables of 
French words are not now measured. This fact seems 
well enough proved by the total absence of blank verse ia 
French, and also by the numerous examples, found in the 
best poets, of syllables that are said to be long, rhyming 
with some that are short, according to rules given on quan- 
tity. This is not a little remarkable, considering the seve- 
rity of the laws of French prosody, which admits of no 
rhymes unless the ear is perfectly well satisfied. It would 
even render the rules on quantity, found in all grammars, 
quite inexplicable, did we not know that many errors or ob- 
solete rules are perpetuated, simply because grammarians 
and lexicographers, though ever ready to criticise the works 
of the living authors, most generally copy, without much, 
examination, those of dead ones. 

It appears, at all events, that quantity has always been so 
trifling in French, as to pass unperceived by a great many 
writers ; for Vabbe d 1 Olivet himself, our standard on this 
subject, observes in his treatise on French prosody, that a 
Frenchman grows old without having read, heard, or re- 
marked that there are syllables longer than others. The 
same author acknowledges, moreover, that prosody is, per- 
haps, in French, but a nicety, an accessory beauty, and 
again, that prosody grows more and more unknown, on ac- 
count of the changes introduced in spelling. Let us remark 
here that the changes alluded to by Vabbe d J Olivet, have 
continued since the time at which he wrote (about 100 
years ago) and must, even then, have been deemed indis- 
pensable, in order to follow the progressive march of the 
language, and the numerous modifications which constitute 
its actual genius. 

If we consult Laveaux, the modern lexicographer who 
appears to have displayed the most genius in discussing 
the difficulties of the French language, we will find in one 



Are the syllables of French words measured'? — Does French poetry admit of 
£>Iank verse ?— Why not ? 



16 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS, 

place, that lie borrows the rules of Vabbe d Olivet, on 
quantity, and in another these remarkable words. "It is in 
vain that some lexicographers have tried, after the example 
of Vabbe $ Olivet, to give rules on this matter (quantity;) 
their efforts have been unsuccessful, and the treatise of 
Vabbe d 1 Olivet itself, presents so many rules condemned by 
usage, and so many contradictory principles, that it cannot 
be proposed as a sure guide." 

It is true that no grammarian acknowledges that there 
is no quantity in French ; but from so many contradictory 
opinions, and the unsettled state of what is called quantity, 
which allows every one to understand it as he pleases, we 
may naturally conclude, that even if it ever existed, usage 
has done away w r ith it, and that what is now generally mis- 
taken for long and short vowels, is nothing but the little 
varieties produced by the circumflex accent, the consonants 
connected w T ith the vowels, the natural stress which the 
meaning or usual place of the words requires, and a num- 
ber of accidental circumstances which need not be reduced 
to rules, because they are either naturally observed or alto* 
gether unnecessary. 

But amongst these causes, which may yet for a long 
time be an obstacle to a final understanding, the most im- 
portant is the circumflex accent, already spoken of, the in- 
troduction of which into the French language must be now 
explained. 

The first grammars that the French possessed were 
mere imitations of Latin grammars ; and this fact alone 
should be sufficient to explain the origin of the rules on 
quantity. But, in the course of time, the necessity of a pe- 
culiar grammar was felt, and not only a special syntax was 
created, but also etymology itself was less consulted. At 
that period (16th and 17th centuries) many hissing or use- 
less letters were suppressed, but no hand was bold enough 
to touch the edifice of prosody. On the contrary, some 
were opposed to the reform, and condemned an innovation 
that was to destroy the pretended harmony of words, and 
particularly the length of some of the vowels: for, accord- 



At what period was the orthography of French words altered 1 — Why were 
some letters suppressed ?— What were the letters suppressed, represented by?. . 



PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 17 

ing to them, the letters suppressed were indispensable, ia 
order to show that the accompanying- vowels were long. 
The defenders of the new system therefore thought pro- 
per, in order to reconcile the conflicting opinions, to indi- 
cate this suppression by a circumflex accent over the near- 
est vowel. From this it resulted that, in some words, the 
vowel then called long, was marked with an accent, while, 
in others, viz : those in which no suppression had taken 
place, either the letters following the vowel, or usage, was 
to serve as a guide. Now, time has, beyond all doubt, le- 
velled all these inequalities, by giving the same length to 
all vowels, at least those that have no accent, and, without 
this sign, no trace would probably remain of vowels that 
have formerly been longer than others. 

It is to be remembered, that the opinion that quantity has 
ever existed in French, is here neither adopted nor rejected. 
It is simply intended to prove that, even if the French words 
have ever been measured, they have long since lost that 
property, and the proposal, made by Feraud, (the author 
of a very valuable dictionary,) to mark every long vowel 
in the language, with a circumflex accent, may be referred 
to as a new authority: the desire expressed by this lexico- 
grapher being that of preventing the total loss of quantity. 

His plan was not adopted ; but the circumflex accent, 
placed as was said above, has remained in the language, 
and it will be now necessary to examine what power this 
sign may still possess. 

We find in all our grammars, that a circumflex accent 
lengthens the sound of the vowels ; on account of which 
we are inclined to swell a little, and always arbitrarily, the 
letter over which it is placed. This may render at once the 
vowel somewhat longer and more open. Yet it can be 
said upon good authority, and unquestionable examples, 
that when the words are pronounced without affectation, 
the difference is, in most cases, no longer sensible. 

It would be, no doubt, preferable, not to notice the accent 
at all in pronouncing ; (which is not however by any 
means requested here, out of respect for established usages :) 
for, after all, where is the necessity of observing the quantity 

What was the result of that alteration?— What power does the circumflex &G* 
cent still possess 1 

2* 



18 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 

more particularly in the case of accented vowels, than in 
that of others % The accent was introduced for the purpose 
of performing the office of a letter omitted, and the letters 
themselves, in words that did not undergo any alteration, 
have not had the power of preserving the quantity. Why 
should the representation be more respected than the object 
itself? If it be said that a great variety of sounds aug- 
ments the beauty of a language, let us not have an arbitrary 
variety, but rules that we can understand and follow ! 

The conclusion to be drawn from what precedes, is that 
many of these pretended rules on quantity have been copied 
by grammarians, without examination, and that, as was said 
before, the little varieties that are still found in many words, 
arise from the nature of the words themselves, or the let- 
ters which compose them. 

One single example of this truth will be given here. 
An e marked with a circumflex accent is said to require a 
wider opening of the mouth, because it is long and open. 
Yet no one will think of giving the same sound to the 
grave e's of the two following words, viz: fete, head, and 
tetu, headstrong. The first will be twice as long as the 
second, and the reason of it is very simple. In the first 
word the voice rests on the e, as the word ends in e mute, 
but it rests on the u in the second word. 

It is hoped that what precedes will, at least, justify the 
omission of the rules on quantity, in this elementary book j 
for, if a Frenchman is allowed to grow old, without having 
heard, read, or remarked that there are syllables longer than 
others, it is not too much to ask the same allowance for fo- 
reigners. 

The distinction between long and short vowels, will not 
therefore be admitted in the following treatise on pronun- 
ciation ; the use of the circumflex accent being limited to 
indicate the suppression of a letter, (except when placed 
over e, which it makes grave,) and to communicate a very 
slight swelling of the voice to the letter over which it is 
placed. 



What is the conclusion to be drawn from what precedes ?— What will the usa 
<tf the circumflex accent be limited to ? 



PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 19 s 

Of Syllabication. 

Dividing words into syllables is called syllabication. 
The following are the rules that must be followed in thus 
dividing a French word. 

Rule L One consonant between two vowels forms a 
syllable with the second, and not with the first; as mart, 
husband: (ma-ri.) 

Rule II. When there are two consonants, between 
two vowels, the division is made between the two conso- 
nants ; as parti, party, (par-ti ;) unless the consonants be 
two of those that can be pronounced in one impulse of the- 
voice ; (these, with the addition of liquid gn, are the same 
as in English, such as br, cl, pr, ct, etc.) in which instance 
they both belong to the second vowel ; as abri, shelter : 
(a-bri.) With a double consonant the division is made 
between the two consonants, erreur, error, (er-reur.) 

Rule III. With three- consonants the division is made 
between the second and the third ; obscur, obscure ; (obs- 
cur ;) unless these can be pronounced in one impulse of 
the voice, in which instance the division is made between 
the first and the second; as, attribut, attribute; (at-tri-but.) 

Rule IV. If there be four consonants, the first two 
belong to the first syllable, the last two to the next ; as- r 
obstructif, obstructive; (obs-trac-tif.) 

Remark I. The letter x, between two vowels, has al- 
ways the sound of two consonants, and the word is pro- 
nounced as if these consonants were put down instead of 
the x ; on account of which, if the word were to be divid- 
ed into syllables, at the end of the line, it would not look 
well to separate the x from either of the vowels. Thus 
divide alexis (a-lexis) and pronounce as if spelt a-lek-sis. 

Remark II. The division of syllables composed of 
vowels only, will be spoken of with the vowels, and could 
not, upon any account, be explained in this place. 

Remark III. E mute is counted a syllable in French, 
as will also be mentioned under the head of that letter. 



What is the first rule to be observed in dividing a word into syllables ?— 
What is the 2d?— When is the division made before the two consonants?— 
Where is the division placed with a double consonant ?— Wnat is the rule 3d?— 
Rule 4th 1— Remark 1st?— 2d?— 3d? 



20 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 

The Different Names of the Consonants, 
It will be remarked in the alphabet that each consonant 
has two names. Some explanation of that singularity is 
here necessary. 

The old names had been for a long time, the only ones 
in use, when M. M. de Port Royal, remarking that those 
who learn to read, meet with great difficulty, in connecting 
consonants with vowels, on account of the arbitrary names 
of the former, imagined a new method of naming them, 
which united to the double advantage of simplicity and uni- 
formity, that of giving to all the letters but one gender. 
This method, although unnoticed at first, is now rapidly 
spreading in France, and will, no doubt, be soon the only 
one in use. But notwithstanding its being unquestionably 
better for the French pupils who learn to read, we will see, 
after a short examination, that it could not be adopted for fo- 
reigners, without being attended by insurmountable diffi- 
culties. It has unfortunately the very great disadvantage 
of giving the same name to three consonants, viz : c, k, and 
q; and this, although not noticed by those who learn read- 
ing, becomes the source of many errors, when the letters 
are dictated to the pupil. If a child is told, for instance, 
that cueillir, to gather, is spelt Jce-u-e-i-le-le-i-re, he cannot 
know whether he must commence the word with a c, a k, 
or a q. The learner is therefore advised on account of 
this imperfection, always to use the old names, which are 
preferable to the new ones in all cases, except for young 
French pupils who learn reading. 

DIRECTIONS. 

The first lesson must not be entirely spent in reading the rules on 
pronounciation ; but, after the first five or six pages are read, down to 
remarks on the letters n and m, it will be better to pass immediatly to 
the compound vowels and diphthongs down to first remark, then to 
what is said of the letter y. The pupils being then able to understand 
the pronounciation of the verb avoir to have, the whole or part of this 
verb, must be given to be committed to memory. To persons who can 
take longer tasks, part of the first exercise may be given to be written 
against the next meeting. In this case it would be indispensable to ex- 
amine the first part of the rules on the genders, and the beginning of 
chapter II. In the succeeding lessons the chapter on pronounciation 
must be read attentively and by small portions ; after which the ques- 
tions will be asked. 

What is said of the different names of the consonants ?— Which must be se* 
lected? 



FRENCH GRAMMAR, 



OF THE PRONUNCIATION. 

N. B. The pronunciation of a language cannot be perfectly or>* 
tained by comparing it with that of another; but after the sounds are 
communicated by the teacher, it is easier to remember them if a point 
of comparison be given. 







Tht 


i Alphabet. 








Letters, 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 


G 


Old Names, 

New Names, 


ah 
ah 


bayl 
be 4 


say 
ke 


day 
de 


a 
e5 


eff 
fe 


jay2 
ghe 


H I 


J 


K 


L 


M 


N 





P 


ash ee 
he ee 


jee2' 


kah 
ke 


ell 
le 


emm 
me 


enn 

ne 


o 
o 


pay 

pe 


Q R 


S 


T 


U 


V 


X 


Y 


Z 


ku3 heir 


ess 


tay 


u3 


vay 


eeks 


eegrec 


zed 


ke re 


se 


te 


u 


ve 


xse 


eegrec 


ze 



(1) The letters ay, by the assistance of which some of the conso- 
nants are sounded, must be pronounced as close as possible, and nearly 
acquire the sound of English final y. 

(2) G and j have the sound of s in pleasure. 

(3) The learner can acquire the sound of q and that of it but by 
hearing them pronounced by the instructor. The letter u, which is 
also heard in q, can be pronounced by placing the lips forward (pretty 
much like those of a child who is pouting) and then trying to pronounce 
the French J. 

(4) B, when named according to the new method, must be sounded 
nearly like b in bud; c like c in cut, &c. observing that b, c, and all 
other consonants, named according to the new method, must not bor- 
row the sound of the English vowel u, more than is absolutely neces- 
sary to make the articulation sensible. 

(5) E is sounded like u in bud, but is much shorter. 

N. B. The French consonants may be, thus far, pronounced 
like the English. It will be, however, better that the pupil* 
should repeat after the teacher, every word given as example.. 

How is French A pronounced ?— E ?— I ?— ?— How can 3-ou pronounce French, 
V ;— How must, thus far, the French consonants be pronounced ? 



22 PRONUNCIATION. 

Of the Letter E. 

The letter E is the only one of the vowels that has two dis- 
tinct sounds, viz: the grave and the acute. 

Besides these two sounds, E is mute in French (silent) as e 
in the English word fate. This occurs when the e is the last 
letter of the syllable, and has no accent ; as malade, sick. 

E is grave in three instances : 1st, when marked with a cir- 
cumflex accent ; 2d, when marked with a grave accent ; and 
3d, when, without being marked with an accent, it is followed, 
in the same syllable, by a consonant that is pronounced. 

N. B. All consonants are pronounced in French, except, sometimes, 
when they are final, as will be hereafter explained. 

The sound of e grave can be compared with that of English e in bell, 
but is a little more open. The e marked with a circumflex accent, and 
followed by a syllable ending in e mute, is generally pronounced with 
a larger opening of the mouth than is necessary to pronounce the 
others. 

Example. 

nieme, same ; pere, father ; mer, sea ; 

tete, head; proces law-suit; sel, salt; 

tetu, headstrong; galere, galley; peste, plague; 

N. B. The letters es in the second person both singular and plural of 
verbs, and ent, in the third person plural, are always silent, as though 
the e were not accompanied by any consonant. 

E is also mute in the following words, although followed by ss ; 
dessus, above ; dessous, below ; ressort, spring ; and in all words com- 
mencing with ress, yet the e is grave in ressac, surf; and ressusciter, to 
resuscitate. 

E is acute, 1st, when marked with an acute accent, and 2d, 
when, without an accent, it is followed in the same syllable by 
a silent consonant. 

The sound of E acute can be compared with that of English a in 
bale. It is however a little sharper, but not quite so sharp as y in te- 
merity. The difference between the grave and the acute E can be then 
remembered by comparing the English words bell and bale, or less and 
lace ; met and mate ; wreck and rake, &c. 

Example. 
severite, severity; tiret, hyphen; 

temerite, temerity; nez, nose. 

How many sounds has the French E ? — When is an E mute 1— In how many 
instances is an E grave ?— What are they ?— What is the English word in which 
you find such a sound as that of French E grave ?— What are the words in which 
9 is mute, although followed by one or two consonants ?— When is an E acute ? 
—What can the sound of E acute be compared to, in English 1 



PRONUNCIATION. 23 

Rules on E mute* 

' Rule L E is mute, as was said before, when it is the last 
letter in a syllable and has no accent. 

The French e mute, is a mere emission of the voice without any dis- 
tinct sound. It either succeeds a consonant, by the articulation of 
which it becomes sensible, or comes after a vowel, of which it may be 
Considered the prolongation. 

Rule II. E mute is always counted a syllable ; for although 
it has no sound by itself, yet it has the power of lengthening 
the nearest vowel that precedes it, so that the voice dwells on 
this letter as long as it does on two syllables. The additional 
sound communicated to a vowel by e mute, is however lower 
than the rest, but if the mute e is preceded by a consonant, the 
latter is articulated with more stress than it would be in En- 
glish, in a similar circumstance. 

Example. 

vie, life ; date, date. 

N. B. If the learner will refer to what was said on the accent, in the 
preliminary observations, he will not mistake this prolongation of the 
vowel for quantity, particularly as the lowering of the voice makes it 
a distinct syllable. 

Remark. — If an s be added to form the plural of a word ending in e 
mute, it does not alter the sound of the word, and neither the e nor the 
s is sounded. Ex. Ville, city ; miles, cities ; dame, lady ; dames, ladies. 

N. B. A diaresis (-) placed over an e, does not give it any sound ,' 
for an e, thus marked, is always silent. The use of that sign will be 
explained hereafter. 

Rule III.— Although it be said that E is silent, when final 
and not accented, it must be observed that in monosyllables, 
when E is not accompanied by another vowel, this letter has 
necessarily a sound, without which it would not be possible to 
pronounce the word. This sound is somewhat like the second 
sound of English u (tub,) but not quite so distinct. It resem- 
bles the e which is heard in pronouncing quickly the two words 
; the lord. Ex.; me, me ; je, I ; le, the; te, thee ; se, one's self. 
Rule IV. — There cannot be two mute e's in succession, or 
in two successive syllables in any instance, yet there are many 
words in which two, and even three e's that have no accent, 
and are each the last letter of the syllable, come in succession 

Define the French E mute.— What is E mute counted for? — Explain how. — 
What power has E mute on a consonant that precedes it ?— What alteration does 
s produce in the sound of a word of which it forms the plural 1— What sound has 

, E when final and unaccented in monosyllables ?— Can two mute E's ever com© 

i ^succession? 



24 PRONUNCIATION. 

at the beginning of a word. But these e's are not all mute, 
for the first one, when there are two such e's, or the first two, 
when there are three e's, are sounded, as marked above for 
monosyllables, viz. nearly like u in tub, and the last one only 
is mute. Ex.; retenir, to detain, redevenir, to become again. 

Remarks.— A mute E can be found in the first syllable of a word, 
in the middle of a word, or at the end of a word. It can never be ini- 
tial. Ex.; tenir, to hold ; Samedi, Saturday ; table, table. 

When two e's, separated by one or more consonants, occur in two 
successive syllables, at the end of a word, the first one is grave and the 
second mute, or the first mute and the second acute, unless the two e's 
be accented. As these differences are always marked, they cannot be 
the matter of any difficulty. Ex.; pere, father ; ferme, farm; pese, 
weighed; tenez, hold; entete, obstinate ; precede, preceded. 

"When the last two e's are not separated by any consonant, they are 
either both acute, or the first is acute and the second mute. Ex. cr£6, 
created; armee, army. 

There are besides, examples of three e's, at the end of a word. The 
first two are acute and the last is mute. Ex.; agreee, agreed ; (fern.) 

Rules for placing the Accents. 

No rule can be given with regard to the circumflex accent, over any 
of the vowels. As it marks the suppression of a letter, it ought to be 
remembered as an essential part of spelling. 

No rule can be given either for the use of the grave accent over a or 
u. It is used in very few words, and these ought to be remembered. 

The following rules will only give directions for placing the grave or 
acute accent over e. 

1st. An e that is sounded and is not followed by a conso- 
nant in the same syllable must be marked with an accent. 

2d. Should that accent not be circumflex, it must be grave 
if the e be followed by a syllable ending in e mute ; if not, the 
accent must be acute. Ex.; eveque, bishop; cafe, coffee; se- 
vere, severe ; severite, severity ; evenement, event. 

Remark. — A grave accent is used over the last e of words ending in 
es ; such as proces, lawsuit ; succes, success. The first e is acute in 
Clever, to raise ; d<§celer, to detect ; degeler, to thaiv ; medecine, medicine; 
m£decin, physician. 

N. B. Remember that es in the second person, both singular and plu- 
ral of verbs, and ent in the third person plural, are always silent, and 
considered as mute e's. 



Explain the different manners in which two or three successive e's can be pro- 
nounced.— In how many different manners can several successive e's be accent- 
ed at the end of a word?— When is the grave accent used instead of the acute ? 
—What accent is used over the last e of words ending in es ?— When are the let* 
ters es silent ?— When are ent silent ? 



PRONUNCIATION, 



OF THE VOWELS IN GENERAL. 

These distinctions being made, it is important to know that 
the French vowels are always sounded as marked in the al* 
phabet, when they are unaccompanied by another vowel. Ex.: 
pari) wager ; poll, polite ; lune, moon ; 

Except when they are followed by n or m in the same syl- 
lable, as they then acquire a nasal sound, which the student 
must learn accurately from the teacher. 

N. B. The learner must again apply the rules laid down for the di- 
vision of syllables, which in this instance lead to the general rule, that, 
there is no nasal sound when n or m is followed by a vowel. 

Remark. — The nasal sound produced by m is the same as 
that produced by n. 

A list of the Nasal Vowels. 

am } 

an f are all sounded like e in the English words encore, or 

\ 

en (when final) is sounded like e in when* 
are sounded like -. . . i in fine 



em 
en 



aid-de-camp. 



lm 

in 

om 

on 

um 

un 



„ o in bone 
u in hunting 



the n or m being 
' articulated like n 
in encore. 



EXAMPLES. 

xoman, novel, fin, J^? 

ambre, amber, impolij impolite, 

infant, child, bon, good, 

empire, empire, ombre, shade, 

Italien, Italian, brun, brown, 

examen, examination, parfum, perfume. 

Remark. — As by a principle deduced from the above rules> 
there is no nasal sound when n or m is followed by a vowel, a 
•difference must be observed in the pronunciation of these 
words — an, year ; ane, ass; tin,fine, (masc.) tine, fine, (fern.) 
son, sound ; monotone, monotonous ; brun, brown ; (masc.) 
brune, brown; (fern.) 

How are the vowels pronounced when unaccompanied by others in the same 
•syllable 1 — When do they become nasal?— When is it that the vowels are not 

. nasal, although followed by n or m ?— What general rule can you give on this 
subject?— What difference is there between the nasal sound of n, and that of *».' 

I ^—Mention the English words given as models for the nasal sounds ? 



26 PRONUNCIATION. 

Remarks on the* Letters N and M. 

First Remark : on double n or ra.-lst. Although double 
n and m are met in many French words, yet these words are 
pronounced as if spelt with a single n or m. Ex.: ame, soul j 
flamme, blaze; platane, plane-tree; canne, cane; farine, 
flour; innocent, innocent; astronome, astronomer ; ho mme, 
man. 

2d. Observe that in words ending in emme and enne, the 
office of the first m and n is to make grave the e which pre- 
cedes it ; these syllables being pronounced as erne and ene. 
Ex.: dilemme, dilemma; etrenne, handsel. 

3d. But in words commencing with emm, em are nasal ; as, 
emmener, to carry away, pronounced as if spelt anmener. 

4th. In adverbs ending in emment, these two syllables are 
pronounced as if spelt aman ; as, prudemment, prudently. 

5th. The first syllables of the following words are nasal: 
ennoblir, to ennoble ; ennui, dulness ; ennuyer, to weary, and 
derivatives. 

6th. In words beginning with imm, the two m's are heard, 
although the i be not nasal. This syllable is then pronounced 
nearly as in the English word imminent. Ex.: immortel, im- 
mortal ; immense, immense. 

7th. The two m's are sounded in the same manner, in the 
words ammon, amnion ; ammoniac, ammoniac ; commuer, to 
commute; commemoration, commemoration; commotion, 
commotion; commensurable, commensurable; Emmanuel, 
Emmanuel; grammatical, grammatical; grammatiste, gram- 
matist. 

8th. Two w's are sounded as in the English word annual, 
in annates, annals ; annotation, annotation ; annuel, annual ; 
annuler, to annul ; inne, innate; innover, to innovate; and 
derivatives ; and also in the proper names, Apennins, the Ape- 
nines ; Cincinnatus, Cincinnatus ; Linnee, Linnaeus, and 
Porsenna, Porsenna. 

Second Remark. — -The letter m in nouns derived from 
ancient and foreign languages, is sounded as in the English 
word ham ; as requiem, Salem, Roboam, Amsterdam, Jeru- 
salem, Ibrahim; but it is nasal in Adam, Joachim. 

Third Remark. — Um, when final, are pronounced ome ; 
as, album, opium, rum, rhum ; except in parfum, perfume, in 
which it has the sound of u in hunting. Rumb, a point of 
the compass, is pronounced ronbe. 



What is to be observed with regard to double norm ?— Name the exceptions 
to that rule.— How is final m pronounced in foreign words ?— When is final um 
pronounced ome ? 






PRONUNCIATION. 



27 



Fourth Remark. — There are words in which en and in 
are followed by h ; these syllables being mere particles pre- 
fixed to words commencing with h. In these words, en is 
nasal, and in is not. The reason of this singularity is, that en 
has been placed before h aspirated, and in before h mute ; as, 
enhardir, to embolden ; inhumain, inhuman. 

N. B. The difference between the two tts will be given under the 
head of that letter. 

Fifth Remark. — In the syllable ien, in the different forms 
of the verbs venir, to come, tenir, to hold, and derivatives, en 
are pronounced like e in when. 

Sixth Remark. — Ent are silent in the third person plural 
of verbs; read, Us parlent, they speak. 

Seventh Remark. — Mn are articulated distinctly, but 
without the nasal sound, although e assumes before these let- 
ters the sound of a, as amnistie, amnesty ; calomnie, calum- 
ny; somnambule, somnambulist; indemnitee indemnity. But 
on is silent in damner, to damn ; condamner, to condemn ; 
and automne, autumn. 

Eighth Remark. — The following words are irregular in 
their pronunciation. 

Enivrer, . to intoxicate, pronounced as if spelt an-nivre 



enorgueillir, to make proud 
ennemi . enemy 
nenni . no 
hennir . to neigh 
hennissement neighing 



solennel 

fern me 

faon 

paon 

taon 

Beam 

Laon 

Caen 

Saone 

monsieur 



anorgueilli 
enemi 
nani 
dni 

dnissement, 
solanel 
fame 
fan 
pan 
ton 
Bear 
Lan 
Can 
Sdne 
meusieu 
and mosieu, in dignified style. 

After having examined the vowels when they occur alone in a sylla^ 
ble, it is necessary to see how they are pronounced when accompanied 
by others. 

How are en and in pronounced when followed by A?— How are ent sounded in 
the third person plural of verbs \ — How are mn articulated ? — What are the 
words in which the nasal syllables are not pronounced according to the above 
yules 1 



solemn 
woman, wife 
fawn 
pea-cock 
ox-fly 

Beam (a French province) 
Laon (a French city) 
Caen (a French city) 
Soane (a river) 
Sir, Mr. . , . 



28 PRONUNCIATION. 

OF THE COMPOUND VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS. 

There are simple sounds in French, represented by two let^ 
ters ; as ai, an, which are pronounced e, o j these are called 
compound vowels. 

But there are other combinations of two vowels, in which 
each of them preserves its proper sound ; and when they form 
but one syllable they are called diphthongs. 

No, name appears to have been given to two successive vowels which 
form two syllables. 

As these rules are intended for the use of the English student, they 
must be presented to him in the most striking manner, without regard 
to the arrangement adopted in Grammars made for the French. 

The combinations of two vowels are divided into two classes ; 
the first containing those which produce together a sound dif- 
ferent from that which they produce separately ; the second 
those which preserve their proper sounds. 

A LIST OF THE COMBINATIONS OF TWO VOWELS WHICH DO 
NOT PRESERVE THEIR PROPER SOUNDS. 

- have the sound of French e. 
.o. 
> nearly that of u in the English word spur. 

00 book. 

wa . war, 

or better that which would be produced by the French letters 
oua uttered in one syllable. 
JE and ce, which very seldom occur, have the sound e. 

Remark. — As the compound vowels ai and ei represent the 
vowel e, they are, like that vowel, sometimes grave and some- 
times acute. They are generally grave when followed by a 
consonant in the last syllable of a word, or when followed by 
a syllable ending in e mute, and acute in all other instances. 

The sound ai, in verbs, will be given with that part of speech, and 
particularly with the verb parler, to speak. 



affaire, 
paire, 


affair, 
pair, 


EXAMPLES. 

reine 
peine 


queen 
pain 



What is a compound vowel? — What is a diphthong - ? — What are the combina- 
tions of vowels in which they lose their proper sound 1 — What sound do they 
assume ?— When have ai and ei a grave sound, and when have they an acutQ 
sound ? 



balai, 


PRONt 

broom, 


FNCIATION. 

veine 


vein 


aim able 


amiable 


reinette 


pippin 


audace 


audacity 


venture 


carriage 


etau 


vice 


poivre 


pepper 


mauve 


mallow 


foi 


faith 


pauvre 


poor 


moine 


monk 


peur 


fear 


boule 


bowl 


sceur 


sister 


clou 


nail 


seul 


alone 


sou 


cent 


meule 


mill-stone 


bijou 


jewel 



29 



First Remark. There are words in which the vowels of 
the above list are pronounced as two syllables, and each of the 
vowels preserves its primitive sound ; but in such cases that 
exception is indicated by a diaeresis (••) placed over the second 
vowel, as naif artless ; baionette, bayonet ; Saul, Saul ; Esau, 
Esau ; Mo'ise, Moses. 

Second Remark. Should the e be accented in either of the 
compound vowels ei and eu, each vowel must be pronounced 
distinctly, and ei or eu will form two syllables ; as, obeir, to 
obey ; reussir, to succeed. 

Third Remark. Ai and ei followed by I in the same syl- 
lable, or II, are always pronounced like a diphthong, viz. each 
of the vowels distinctly in one syllable (Z and 11 being sounded 
as in the English word brilliant;) as, ail, garlick ; serdil, 
seraglio ; oreille, ear ; merveille, wonder. 

Fourth Remark. Ai and ei, followed by m or n in the 
same syllable, have exactly the same nasal sound of in. We 
read in the same manner the words pain, bread, and pin, pine 
tree ; faim, hunger, and^n, end ; dessein, design, and dessin, 
drawing, &c. 

Fifth Remark. Oi before n in the same syllable, is pro- 
nounced as if spelt ou-in ; as loin, far 5 coin, corner; soin, 
care ; foin, hay. 

Sixth Remark. Oi is sounded like 0, (the i being silent,) 
in the words moignon, stump ; oignon, onion : poignant, 
poignant; poignard, poinard , poignee, handful, /is also 
silent in Montaigne, Montaigne. 

Eu are sounded like the letter u, (e being silent,) in all the 
forms of the verb avoir, to have. Ex. : eu, had; nouseumes, 
we had. 
E is useless in a jeun, fasting ; and Jean, John. 

What are the instances in which the vowels of the above list have each its_ 
proper sound 1 — How is it when one of the vowels is el — How are ai and ei 
sounded before I or 111 — How before n or m ? — How are oi sounded before n. ? — - 
What are the words in which oi are sounded like o? — What are those in which 
eu are sounded like u /—In what words is e useless ? 



30 PRONUNCIATION. 

Observation. — Oi were formerly used in the imperfects and condi- 
tionals of verbs, and in many substantives to represent the sound of e; 
Voltaire proposed to substitute in these words the compound vowel ai 
for oi. This improvement was first adopted by almost all the French 
writers, and at last by the Academy. The learner will therefore find 
no difficulty in reading books in which this orthography was followed'. 
As for old publications, he must be careful to give the sound of e to oi, 
in the imperfects and conditionals of verbs, and also in several substan- 
tives, the pronunciation of which he can ascertain by applying to a mo- 
dern dictionary. 

OF THE VOWELS WHICH PRESERVE THEIR SOUNDS. 

When two vowels occur together in an order different from 
that of the above given vowels, each of them preserves its pro- 
per sound, and they form one or two syllables. In the former 
case they are called diphthongs: they have no special name in 
the latter. 

But if the first vowel be e without an accent, it is entirely 
silent ; if e mute be the second vowel, it makes the first twice 
as long, as was explainedbefore. Ex. : flageolet, flageolet ; 
folie, folly. 

Remark. — Sometimes it is a mute letter; viz. after g and q. The 
use of the u after these consonants will be explained under letters g 
and q. 

OF THE DIVISION OF SYLLAELES COMPOSED ONLY OF VOWELS. 

As two vowels form either one or two syllables, it would be 
desirable to find here rules to determine what the diphthongs 
are ; but it is almost impossible to give rules on all the combi- 
nations of vowels. The following directions, which apply to 
the greatest number of words, will, however, be found very 
useful. 

1st- Every accented vowel forms a syllable by itself. 

2d, If neither of the two vowels be i, they will be pronounced 
in two syllables ; as, Cacao, Cacao ; nuage, cloud. 

3d. If i be one of the two vowels, both will form a diph- 
thong, in the final syllables ten, ier, ion, and in short words 
which have no other vowels, and thus become monosyllables ; 
as, soutien, support ; dernier, last ; lion, lion -,jiel, gall ; nuit^ 
night. 

4th. But final iel is pronounced in two syllables, except when 
there are no other vowels in the word ; as, ministeriel, minis- 
terial ; del, heaven. 

" In what words have ai been substituted for oi ?-How are two vowels pronounced 
when placed in a different order from those of the list'.' — What is to be observed 
when e mute is one of the vowels ? — What is the first rule to be observed, in order 
to know whether two vowels form one or two syllables 1— What is the secend 
*ule ?~ The third rule ?--- The fourth rule ? 



PRONUNCIATION'. 



31 



N. B. In poetry, ion, ier, and often ien, form two syllables. 

5th. When the root of a verb ends in a vowel and the addi- 
tion begins with a vowel, each of these letters forms a syhV 
ble by itself in all the forms of the verb ; as, nous prions f we 
pray. This does not apply to two vowels that both belong to 
the addition of the verb ; as, nous parlions, we were speaking. 





EXAMPLES. 




Aerien 


ethereal 


miel 


honey 


Ismael 


Ishmael 


sablier 


sand-box 


chaos 


chaos 


client 


client 


aoriste 


aorist 


orient 


east 


boreal 


northern 


union 


union 


beatitude 


beatitude 


violon 


violin 


eolien 


eolian 


relitire 


binding 


meteore 


meteor 


sciure 


sawdust 


liard 


farthing 


Moabite 


Moabite 


fiancee 


betrothed 


boa 


boa 


poete 


poet 


tuant 


killing j 


Meroe 


Meroe 


muet 


dumb 


made 


hick 


saluer 


to bow 


puits 


well 


bruit 


noise 


impetuosite 


impetuosity 


sinuosite 


sinuosity 



RULES FOR PRONOUNCING THREE VOWELS TOGETHER. 

Whenever three vowels come in succession, there are 
alwa} 7 s two of them which form a compound vowel (the only 
compound vowels are ai, ei, au, eu, and ou, the pronunciation 
of which is found page 28.) Then the third vowel, whether it 
be placed before or after the compound vowel, preserves its 
natural sound, and forms with the compound vowel either one 
or two syllables. In the former instance, this re-union is called 
a diphthong. 

N. B. There are, however, a few words in w r hich ai, being 
followed by U, becomes a diphthong ; as, criailler, to bawl. 

As three vowels, except in these very few instances, can 
then form but two sounds, the same rules will be applied here 
that are laid down for two vowels. 

If the first of the three vowels be e mute, it adds no sound 
to the compound vowel; and if e mute be the third vowel, it 
only lengthens the compound vowel; as, beau, handsome ; - 
raie< stripe. 



What is said of the same vowels in poetry "—What is the fifth rule?— What 
is to be remarked when three vowels come together 1— How are they pro- 
nounced ?~ How is it when e mute is one of the vowels ? 



32 



PRONUNCIATION. 



RULES FOR DIVIDING THREE VOWELS INTO SYLLABLES. 

Respecting the number of syllables, the directions given in 
this case will be pretty much the same as those applied to two 
vowels, since a compound vowel is but a simple sound repre- 
sented by two letters. 

1st. If the letter besides the compound vowel is not % there 
will be two syllables ; as, clouant, nailing ; statuaire, statuary. 

2d. If it is i that accompanies the compound vowel, the 
three letters form a diphthong ; viz. one syllable in which the 
two sounds are heard; as, niais, simpleton; ozu, yes. 

3d. But in the terminations ieur and ieux, i forms a sylla- 
ble by itself, except a few monosyllables in ieux. Ex. : supe- 
rieur, superior ; precieux, precious ; mieux, better. 









EXAMPLES. 




lineaire 




linear 


gruau 


oatmeal 


biais 




slope 


chiourme 


galley crew 


suaire 




winding-sheet rouage 


wheel-work 


Dieu 




God 


bateau 


boat 


lueur 




light 


nageoire 


Jm 


geai 




jackdaw 


foie 


liver 


baie 




bay 


boue 


mud 


feue, fern 




deceased 


noue 


knotted 


peau 




skin 


grenouille 


frog 


criailler 




to bawl 


houille 


coal 
baboon 


miauler 




to mew 


babouin 


WORDS OF IRREGULAR PRONUNCIATION WITH TWO OR 






THREE VOWELS. 




Aout 






August pronounced 


ou 


aiguade 






watering-place 


egade 


douairiere 




dowager 


douariere 


lingual 






lingual 


lingoual 


joaillier 






jeweller 


joualie 


moelle 






marrow 


mouale 


poele 






frying-pan^ stove 


pouale 


toast 






toast 


toste 


ceil (liquid I) 


eye 


euil 


ceillet 


do. 




pink 


euille 


accueil 


do. 




reception 


akeuil 


ecueil 


do. 




shoal 


ekeuil 



What is the first rule to know whether three vowels form one or two syllables ? 
—The second rule ?— The third rule ?— What are the words in which two or 
three vowels are pronounced irregularly 2 



PRONUNCIATION. 33 

recueil (liquid I) collection rekeuil^ 

cercueil do. coffin serkeuil 

cueillir do. to gather keuillir 

orgueil do. pride The final syllable pro- 

nounced like euil, and the g hard as in game. 

N. B. The derivatives of the above words are pronounced 
in the same manner. 

RULES FOR PRONOUNCING FOUR VOWELS. 

There are instances of four successive vowels. This is pro- 
duced by one compound vowel succeeding another. They are 
.pronounced separately and in two syllables. Sometimes the 
fourth vowel is e mute ; then the three vowels that precede it 
are sounded as explained before for three vowels, the only 
function of the mute e being that of lengthening the sound of 
the vowels that it follows. Ex. : je jouai, I played; noueux^ 
knotty ; joueur, gambler ; houee, buoy. 

OF THE LETTER Y. 

Y between two consonants is pronounced like i, and follows 
the rules of that letter : system e, system ; symbole, symbol. 

When succeeding another vowel, it has trie sound ol two 
t's, the first of which is joined, in pronouncing, with the fore- 
going vowel, and forms a syllable with it, and the second is 
pronounced by itself, or, if followed by another vowel, is joined 
with it in pronouncing. 

EXAMPLES. 

pays country pronounced pai-i 

moyen means moi-i-en 

joyeux joyful joi-i-eu 

royaume kingdom roi-i-aume 

OF THE CONSONANTS. 

First Rule. Final consonants are silent, except c,f, I, and 
r ; n and m are nasal according to the above rules. 

Second Rule. Of two final consonants, the second is 
silent ; as, mort, death ; saint, holy. 

Third Rule. Of three final consonants, the last two are 
silent ; as, prompt, prompt ; corps, body. 

. N. B. All exceptions to these rules will be marked under the head of 
each of the consonants. 

What is to be remarked of four successive vowels ? — How are they pro- 
nounced?— How is y sounded between two consonants ?— How when accompa- 
nied by one or several vowels ?— What is the first rule on the pronunciation of 
consonants ?~ The second?— The third? 



34 PRONUNCIATION. 

B, when final, is articulated in proper names only ; as ? 
Moab, Moab ; and in radoub, refitting of a ship ; and rumby 
point of the compass. 

Bb are sounded like one. 

C is hard (like the English k) before the vowels a, o, and 
u, and when immediately followed by a consonant ; as, carte, 
card ; coton, cotton ; cupidite, cupidity ; climat, climate ; era- 
vate, cravat ; actif, active ; 

And soft (like the English s) before e, i, and y ; as, celebrite 7 
celebrity : cecite, cecity ; cypres, cypress. 

C is soft in some words before a, o, and u, but then it is 
marked thus, with a cedilla, c ; as, facade, front of a house ; 
lecon, lesson ; recu, receipt. 

C is never hard before e, z, and . y. That sound is produced, in 
French, by the letters qu, as will be seen hereafter. ' 

Cc, before e and i, are pronounced as in English. Ex. : 
succes, success ; but cc in ail other instances, and cq, have 
simply the sound of k ; as, accuse?^, to accuse ; acquerir, to 
acquire. 

The final c is one of the final consonants that are articulated. 
It has the sound of k, even when preceded by another conso- 
nant, contrary to the second rule. Ex. : avec, with ; arc, bow j 
muse, musk ; Tare, Turk. Yet it is silent after a nasal sound ; 
as, banc, bench; tronc, trunk; but it is heard in zinc, zinc> 
and done, then, before a vowel. Final c is silent, besides, in 
accroc, rent ; arc-boutant,buttress ; arsenic, arsenic ; &roc, jug ; 
clerc, clerk ; eric, engine to lift up burdens ; echecs, chess ; 
croc, hook ; estomac, stomach; escroc, sharper; lacs ; nets ; 
marc, mark ; pore, pork ; tabac, tobacco. 

Second, second ; is pronounced as if spelt segond ; vermi- 
celle, vermicelli, and <violoncelle, violoncello, as if spelt vermi- 
chelle, violonchelle. (See eh in the next paragraph.) 

Ch is like sh in English ; as, cher, dear ; chute, fall ; except 
in the following words, derived from the Hebrew or Greek, in 
whicli it has the sound of k: anachorete, anachorite ; ana- 
chronisme, anachronism ; archetype, archetype ; archiepisco- 
pal, archiepiscopal ; archiepiscopat, archiepiscopacy ; ar~ 
chonte, archonte ; catechumene, catechumen ; ar change, 
archangel; eucharistie, eucharist; echo, echo; chaos, 
chaos; chozur, chorus; choriste, chorister; chorus, choir; 
orchestre, orchestra ; patriarchal, patriarchal; patriarchat, 

When is final b articulated ?— How are two &'s articulated ? — When is c 
sounded like k '.'--When like si— When is c soft before a,o and w ?--How are two 
c*a pronounced before e and i?— How in other instances .'—When is finale 
heard ? — What are the words in which c has a peculiar sound?— How are ch pro-*; 
nounced ? — What are the exceptions 1 



Pronunciation, 35 

patriarchate; also in many scientific words corresponding in 
French and English, and so evidently derived from the Greek 
that a person without the knowledge of the latter language is 
ignorant of their signification, and must apply to the dictionary 
Where their derivation is marked. Ch is likewise pronounced 
like ft, m proper names of similar derivation: yet it has the 
sound of sh in AcMUe. Ch has the sound of ft in Michel 
Ange, and that of sh in Machiavel. 

The same sound of ft is given to ch when it is followed bv a 
consonant ; as, chretien, christian; technique, technical ; chlo- 
rure, chloride. ' 

Ch are silent in almanach, almanac. 

In words ending in ct, both consonants are sounded • as 
exact, exact ; correct, correct ; direct, direct ; but t is silent in as- 

&!T c \'. cir . C0 ?. s P<; c h "rcumspect; and respect, respect : 
and both ct in instinct, instinct. * 

nSn iS -T U i lded in f ud ? south > and in P ro P e r names ; as, 
David, David ; ds are silent in poids, weight ? 

1W are sounded only in addition, addition ; additional 
additional ; adducteur, adducent muscle, and reddition ' 

Ff are sounded like one. 

The final/is always articulated, except in cerf-volanL kite 
(paper kite,) and other words in which cerf is followed bv a 
modifying word ; clef, key ; aufdur, a hard-boiled eg"; Lf 
-fef reS A ¥J5 ^/^firt ox ; bceufsale, salted Sr corn- 
^i^ ' c ^ ffiMw e, master-piece; and in the plural of three 

The second/only is pronounced in nerf-de-bceuf, cowskin 

G is hard (like #• in go) before the vowels a, 0, and w, and 
when immediately followed by a consonant ; zs gateau, cake • 
gomme, gum g-«« Mra /, guttural ; globe, globe ;>vk e , grace - 
erogw, riddle; I^/wen, Enghien. ' 8 ' 

And soft (like s in pte<mwe,) before e, i, and «, as general 
general; pto, waistcoat ; gyinastiaue\ gymnastic*^ J 

J ^ G has the hard sound of g in go, in the proper name Gess- 

h Sometimes^ is followed by e mute, and one of the vowels, 
a, o, u. Then the g-, by its place before e, must be nro- 

cS to°t W a V he e ISSilent ' that sound is i»medLSk 
carried to the vowels a, o, or K, It seems, on hearing those 

syllables as if theg- were soft before these vowels; but that 

soft sound is produced by the interposition of the m, te e 

TO be carefully observed both in reading and selling : 

jwoft fegeanf, obliging; geole, goal; gageuref bet Jt is on 



36 PRONOUNCIATIQN. 

account of this arrangement that the eu in this last word does 
not form a compound vowel, the word being pronounced ga- 
in the same manner as e mute placed between g and the 
vowels a, o, u, makes that letter soft, a similar interposition of 
a silent u gives it a hard sound before e and i; the same that it 
has in the English word get guitar ; as, guerre, war ; guidon, 
standard; guinguette, tavern ; dog ue, bull -dog; gueux, beg- 
garly. 

But in the following words the two vowels are sounded dis- 
tinct, as a diphthong; aiguille, needle ; aiguillon, sting \ ai- 
guiser, to whet, and derivatives ; inextinguible, inextinguish- 
able ; and the proper names, Le Guide, de Guize, and Guizot. 
In cigue, hemlock ; aigue, acute ; (fern.) etc., the diaeresis 
placed on the last e, (which does not, however, cease to be 
mute,) indicates sufficiently that the sound of u must not be 
blended with that of e, as it is in dogue but must be articulat- 
ed by itself. 

In the word ambiguite, ambiguity ; and the verb arguer, 
to argue, in all its inflexions, gu forms a distinct syllable. 

N. B. In the forms of this verb where u is followed by e and i, a diae- 
resis is generally placed over the latter vowels. 

Gua is pronounced like goua in Guadeloupe, Guadalqui- 
vir, Guatimala. 

Gl are sounded like the 11 of the English word brilliant, in 
imbroglio, intricacy. 

G takes the sound of k in the first syllable of gangrene, 
gangrene ; and derivatives, and in bourg, borough. It is silent 
in signet, tassel, and in the proper names Clugny, Regnaud, 
Regndrd, 

Qs are pronounced like single g, except before e ; then the 
first is hard, and the second soft ; as suggcrer, to suggest. 

Final g is only heard in^'o^, yoke ; zig-zag, zig-zag ; and 
in foreign names, as, Agag\ 

Gt and gs are silent in doigt, finger; vingt, twenty; and 
h i.v, legacy; (pronounced, U.) 

Gn i nave a liquid sound which can be compared to that of 
the English word seignior, or bagno\ as, ignorant, ignorant; 
4igne } worthy; signal, signal. 



In whal English word can you find a sound corresponding to that of g hard?— 
Of g BO f\ '—what isto be observed respecting g followed bye?— By ul— In what 
words do gut form a diphthong ?~ What prevents then from being mute in some 
words ending in gut ?-?In what words are gua pronounced goua?— What are the 
accidental pronunciations of w— How are gg articulated ?— In what 
words is final g heard .'—When are gn liquid ? 



PRONUNCIATION. 37 

N. B. Gn when liquid forms but one syllable with the following 
vowel. 

Gn> when initial, are articulated exactly as in the English 
word ignorant. Ex. : Gnome, gnome, pronounced as if spelt 
guenome. The same sound is given to these two letters in the 
following words, in which the division of the syllables is placed 
between the gn ; agnation, agnation; agnus-castus, agnus- 
castus; cognation, cognation ; diagnostique, diagnostic ; igne, 
igneous; impregnation, impregnation; inexpugnable, inex- 
pugnable ; magnesie, magnesia ; regnicole, inhabitant of a 
kingdom ; stagnation, stagnation ; and derivatives; and in the 
proper name Prognee. 

H is both mute and aspirate ; but by this distinction it must 
not be understood that the h is ever articulated, for it is always 
silent. 

To understand what distinction is made betw r een those two 
kinds of h, it must be known, as will be hereafter illustrated, 

1st. That many monosyllables ending in a vowel, lose that 
vowel and take an apostrophe, before words beginning with a 
vowel ; as, Varbre, the tree, instead of le arbre ; 

2d. That when a word, ending in e mute, comes before a 
word beginning with a vowel, the consonant which precedes 
the e mute is joined, in pronouncing, to the next word, and 
forms with it but one syllable, as, V Europe entiere, the whole 
of Europe ; which we pronounce as if spelt PEuro-pentiere ; 

3d. That when a word ending in a consonant comes before 
a word beginning with a vowel, the sound of that consonant 
is most generally carried to the next word, as, un mediant en- 
fant, a wicked boy, pronounced as if spelt un median tenfant. 

Now it must be understood that the three above rules are 
observed before some words commencing with an A, while be- 
fore others, it would be a fault to make an elision, or to sound 
the final consonant of a preceding word. In the former words 
the initial h is called mute, in the latter aspirate. 

The only effect of the aspirated h is then to make the vowel 
which it precedes pronounced distinctly ; as a is in the Eng- 
lish words go again. 

Examples of h mute. 

L'homme the man ; une excellente histoire, an excellent his- 
tory ; un mechant homme, a wicked man. 



When are they hard 1 — What is the difference in articulating h mute and A 
aspirated?— In what do the two fr's differ]— How can these two A's be distin- 
guished? 

4 



38 PRONUNCIATION- 

Examples of h aspirated. 

Le hameau, the hamlet ; line excellente hache, an excellent 
axe ; un grand heros, a great hero. 

There is no rule to distinguish a mute from an aspirated h. 
For this reason the h aspirated is always preceded by some 
sign in the French and English Dictionary, to which the 
learner may refer. A guide can be given to those who are ac- 
quainted with the Latin : When a French word of Latin deri- 
vation commences with an h, both in Latin and French, that 
h is mute : which shows that it was only preserved for the sake 
of etymology. The words heros, hero; harpie, harpy; hen- 
nir, to neigh ; and hanter, to haunt, are the only exceptions to 
this rule. In all other words the h is aspirated, except in huile, 
oil ; heureux, happy ; hieble, wall- wort. 

H, between two vowels, makes them pronounced in two syl- 
lables ; as, cohue, crowd. A diaeresis on the u would produce 
the same effect. 

H after a consonant will be found under the head of the respective 
letters, with which it is thus used. 

/has constantly the sound of s in pleasure; as, jamais, 
never ; joujou, plaything. 

if is like the English; as, Kilogramme, a French weight 
belonging to the new metrical system. 

L, when preceded by i in the same syllable, and 11, preceded 
byz, have a sound which is called liquid, and is like that of 
the English word brilliant; as famille, family; tailleur, tai- 
lor; ceil, eye; bail, lease; ecureuil, squirrel. The following 
words are exceptions to this rule, the I or 11 being sounded like 
the English single I: calville, calviile.; campanille, the upper 
part of a cupola; codicille, codicil; civil, civil; and all adjec- 
tives ending in il; distiller, to distil; exit, exile ; fibrille, fib- 
ril ; jil, thread ; imbecille, idiot; instiller, to instil; mil and 
mille, thousand; million, million, and derivatives ; profit, pro- 
file; pupille, pupil ; sibylle, sibyl; syllabe, syllable; sille, a 
greek poem; tranquille, tranquil; vauderville, a short come- 
dy ; ville, city ; and their derivatives ; Bresil, Brasil ; Ml, 
Nile, and Gille. 

LI are both heard in the following words, and though pre- 
ceded by t, are not liquid : fritillaire, fritillaria; illegal, ille- 
gal; and all words commencing with ill; m a xillaire, maxil- 
lary; oscillation, oscillation ; scintillation, scintillation; syl- 
logismc, syllogism ; titiller, to titillate; vaciller, to reel ; and de- 
rivatives. 

What is the effect of h between two vowels ?— What is the sound of //—That 
of IT?— That of L 7— When is I liquid?— In what words is it that I is not liquid 
after i? * 



PRONUNCIATION. Otf 

LI are heard in alleger, to ease; allegoric, allegory; allu- 
sion, allusion ; appellatif, appellative; appellation, appella- 
tion ; belligerant, belligerant ; belliqueux, warlike, collabora- 
tes, an associate in working ; collateral, collateral ; colloque, 
colloquy; collusion, collusion; constellation, constellation; 
ebullition, ebullition ; ellebore, hellebore ; gallican, gallican ; 
gallicisme, gallicism ; hellenisme, hellenism ; intelligent, in- 
telligent; malleable, malleable; medullaire, medullar; pal- 
Her, to palliate ; pellicule, pellicle ; pulluler, to pullulate ; pu- 
sillanime, pusillanimous; rebellion, rebellion; solliciter, to 
solicit ; velleite, velleity ; and their derivatives. LI are also 
heard in ancient proper names, as, Appollon, Sylla, &c. 

In other words one I is heard instead of two. 

The final I is always liquid, when preceded by i, (except in 
the words placed above,) and is sounded like the English I in 
all other instances; as, ciel, heaven ; mal, ill. But in the fol- 
lowing words it is silent: baril, barrel ; chenil, kennel ; coutil, 
ticking 'yfenil, hayloft; fournil, bakehouse; fraisil, coal-dust; 
fusil, gun; gentil, genteel; gril, gridiron; outil, tool; persil, 
parsley; soul, drunk; sourcil, eyebrow. Fouls, pulse, is pro- 
nounced pou ; fits, son, either^s or Jj. 

In some proper names Ih have the liquid sound ; as, Milhau. 
LI are sounded liquid in the proper name, Sully. 

As for n and m, see the rules on the nasal sound. It is es- 
sential, however, to notice, that all final consonants are silent 
after these letters; as, temps, time; prompt, prompt, &c; except, 
however, the following words, in which all the final consonants 
are sounded; distinct, distinct; succinct, succinct; larynx, 
larynx ; lynx, lynx ; sens, sense, (though the s be silent in 
sens commun, common sense;) sphynx, sphynx; and zinc, 
zinc. 

P is not heard in baptcme, baptism ; cheptel, a lease of cat- 
tle ; dompter, to subdue ; compte, account ; sculpter, to carve; 
and their derivatives ; and sept, seven. But in the middle of 
other words p is sounded ; as, redempteur, redeemer. 

Ph have the sound off; as, philosophic, philosophy. 

Of pp one only is heard; as'appeler, to call. 

Final p is silent ; as drap, cloth ; loup, wolf; but it is heard 
in cap, cape; jalep, jalap ', julep, julap ; and proper names, as 
Alep. Both of the final consonants are heard in laps, (de terns) 
interval, and rapt, rape. 



In what words are two Vs heard 1 — In what words is final I silent 1 — When 
are Ik and ult liquid 1 — What is said of final consonants preceded by n ?— When is 
p*silent ?— What sound have ph] — What is said of two fs ? 



40 PRONUNCIATION. 

Q is always followed by u, except in cinq, five, and coq, 
cock, in which it is sounded like k. 

The u, which is destined always to accompany q, has been 
omitted in the word piqure, pricking, on account of its being 
followed by another u. This suppression is marked by the 
circumflex accent. The u is heard and q pronounced like k. 

Qu has three sounds. 1st. That of k, by far the most ge- 
neral, before any vowel, the u being entirely silent ; as, quality 
quality; querelle, quarrel pratique, practice; qui, who; quo- 
tidien, daily ; queue, tail. 

2d. That of kou, only before a, in the following words : 
aquatile, aquatile; aquarella, aquarella; aqua-tinta, aqua- 
tinta ; aquatique, aquatic;- equateur, equator; equation, equa- 
tion ; liquation, liquation ; loquacite, loquacity ; quaere, qua- 
ker; quadrature, quadrature; quadrige, ancient-chariot; 
quaterne, quaternion, and derivatives; quadragenaire, a man 
of forty ; quadragesimal, quadragesimal ; quadruple, quad- 
ruple ; quadrupede, quadruped ; quatuor, quarfetto ; in quarto, 
in quarto. 

3d. That of ku, only before e and i in the following words: 
equestre, equestrian ; equitation, the art of riding; equiangle, 
equiangular ; and all mathematical words commencing with 
equi; etre a quia, to be nonplussed; liquefaction, liquefaction; 
questeur, questor; questure, qnesture; ubiquiste, ubiquitary ; 
quintuple, quintuple ; and all words in which quin stands for 
five, except quincailler, ironmonger, and derivatives, in which 
qu has the sound of k. The same sound of ku is heard in the 
proper names, Quinte-curce and Quintilien. 

The sound of ku and that of kou are heard in succession in 
the words quinquagenaire, a man of fifty : and quinquage- 
sime, quinquagesima. 

R is sounded as in English, but with greater stress. When 
preceded by d or t it is somewhat difficult to pronounce, and 
it would be advisable to hear it from the teacher. The tongue 
should come much nearer the upper teeth, than it does in the 
corresponding English words : as ordre, order ; trace, trace. 

When r is double, one only is pronounced, except in the 
words ; aberration, aberration ; abhorrer, to hate ; concurrent, 
concurrent; erremens, proceeding; erreur, error; errer, to 
err ; crrone, erroneous ; interregne, interreign ; narration, 
narration ; terreur, terror ; torrefier, to torrify ; torrent, tor- 
rent; and in m§ny words commencing with irr ; such as, 



What is to be remarked of ql— How many sounds has q?— When has it the 
sound of k ?— When that of kou ?— When that of ku 1— How is r sounded 1— After 
what letters is it more difficult to be pronounced 1 — When are rr pronounced ? 



PRONUNCIATION. 41 

irregulier, irregular, &c.; and in the future and conditionals 
of the verbs acquerir, courir, and mourir, as will be mention- 
ed among the verbs. 

Final r is always articulated when preceded by the vowels, 
a, i, o, and u, as char, car; or, gold; erreur, error; except in 
monsieur, sir, as was mentioned before. 

Final r, after e, is always silent, and this vowel sounded like 
e, as parler, to speak; dernier, last; except amer, bitter; 
avant-hier, the day before yesterday ; belveder, belvedere ; coy- 
lender, calendar ; cancer, cancer ; cher, dear ; cuiller, spoon ; 
ether, ether ; enfer, hell ; fer, iron ; jier, proud ; f rater, an 
ignorant medical practitioner ; gaster, stomach ; hier, yes- 
terday ; hiver, winter; lucifer, lucifer ; mdchefer, dross of 
iron ; magister, village schoolmaster ; mer, sea ; outremer, 
ultramarine ; pater, Lord's Prayer ; stathouder, stadtholder ; 
ver, worm ; and several proper names : as, Jupiter. 
ZZ" after r is silent, as rhume, cold. 

In common conversation r is almost silent in notre, votre, 
our, your. 

The suppression of r in the pronunciation of some words ending in 
tr, and particularly the infinitives of the second conjugation, (ending in 
ir,) is recommended by several grammarians, as plaisir, pleasure, finir, 
to finish, pronounced plaisi,fini. 

All final consonants are silent after r; as, mort, death ; sort, 
fate ; except in Mars, March; ours, bear. 

£ is hard (as in sister,) and soft like z. 

It has always the soft sound when single between two vow- 
els, as rose, rose, maison, house ; except in desuetude, desue- 
tude ; resipiscence, resipiscence ; and in some compound 
words, in which it was originally initial ; as parasol, umbrel- 
la; vraisemblable, likely. S is hard besides in the different 
tenses of the verb, gesir, as nous gisons, we lie. 

It is also soft in transaction, transition, and their deriva- 
tives ; in Alsace, Alsace ; balsamine, balsam ine ; and deriva* 
tives ; and when followed by b ; as presbyter e, presbytery. 

See and sci, are pronounced like ce ci, as, scene, stage ; sci- 
ence, science ; and sch like ch, as, schisme, schism. 

Ss is always hard. Thus a marked distinction must be 
made in the pronunciation of these words, which foreigners are 
very liable to confound in speaking: Cousin, cousin ; coussin, 
cushion ; base, basis ; basse, base ; rose, rose ; rosse, nag ; poi- 
son, poison ; poisson, fish ; ruse, cunning ; Russe, Russian. 

After what letters is final r pronounced 1— When is final r pronounced after e? 
—What sound has h after r?— What is said of final consonants after r?— When is 
s soft ?— What are the exceptions ?— When is it soft besides ?— How is s follow- 
ed by c pronounced ? — How are ss sounded ] 

4* 



42 PRONUNCIATION. 

Final s is silent, particularly in verbs, and when it forms the 
plural of a word. It is heard in aloes, aloes ; as, ace ; atlas, 
atlas ; blocus, blockade ; calus, callus ; en sus, besides ; lapis, 
lapis; iris, iris ; jadis, formerly ; lis, lily ; mats, maize; mars, 
march; metis, mongrel; meeurs, manners; tous, all, (when used 
as a pronoun ;) ours, bear ; plus, more, when final ; prospectus, 
prospectus; vasistas, an aperture in a door; vis, screw; in 
words borrowed from the Latin; as, gratis, gratis; chorus, 
chorus, &c; and at the end of ancient and foreign names ; as, 
Brutus, Gil Bias. 

Both st are sounded in est, east ; ovest, west ; lest, ballast; 
and le Christ, the Christ, although silent in Jesus Christ, an- 
techrist. 

T is hard (as in tart,) and soft like s. 

All French words in which the t is soft, correspond to En- 
glish words in which the same letter has the sound of sh in the 
same syllable ; as satisfaction, satisfaction ; petition, petition ; 
patience, patience; superstition, superstition. 

The only words, besides these, in wh ch it has the same 
sound of s, are, argutie, cavil ; balbutier, to stutter ; inertie, 
inertness; imperitie, ignorance ; minutic, trifle ; peripetie, turn 
of fortune; prophetie, prophecy ; satiete, satiety ; aristocratic, 
aristocracy ; as well as all those ending in atie ; and all their 
derivatives ; besides several proper names, as, Beotie, Boeotia, 
in which the English corresponding syllable has the sound 
of s. 

Two Ps are sounded like one; but both are heard in atti- 
cisme, atticism ; attique, attic ; battologie, tautology ; guttu- 
ral, guttural ; pittoresque, picturesque. 

The final t is sounded only in aconit, aconite ; brut, rough ; 
chut, hush ; dot, dowry ; deficit, deficiency ; fat, coxcomb y 
fret, freight ; granit, granite ; huit, eight ; mat, unpolished ; 
net, neat ; opiat, opiate; occiput, occiput ; pat, stale-mate ; pre- 
terit, preterite; rapt, rape; sinciput, sinciput; subit, sud- 
den ; and in all Latin words ; as caret. It is always silent 
in et, and; toast, toast, is pronounced as if spelt toste. 

Th are sounded like the English t, the h being silent, the, 
tea; theatre, theatre; luth, lute. 

V, and W (which is found in some words borrowed from 
foreign languages,) are pronounced like v in English ; as, 
veuve, widow ; Westphalie, Westphalia. Yet the sound of 
English W is preserved in the words whist, whist ; and whiski, 

When is final s heard ?— When are st heard ?— When is t soft?— How are two 
*'s pronounced ?— When is the final t heard ?— How are th sounded?— How is wf 



PRONUNCIATION. 



43 



a sort of light carriage; as these words have been lately in- 
troduced into the French language. 

Newton and Law are pronounced Neuton, Las. 

Xhas three sounds which correspond in the two languages. 
It will be observed that words in which that letter is found in 
the beginning or middle of words are derived from the Greek 
or Latin, and found in the English as well as in the French 
languages. 

Then the x must be articulated like ks in sexe, sex ; para- 
dove, paradox ; like gs in examen, examination ; exil, exile ; 
and like k in execs, excess ; excellent, excellent. 

In the following words it has the sound of ks ; luxe, luxu- 
ry; Alexandre, Alexander; auxiliaire, auxiliary; and deri- 
vatives ; fluxion, fluxion; and all words ending in xion. 

Xhas, besides these three sounds, that of 55 in dix, ten; 
six, six; soixante, sixty; Aix, Auxone, Auxerre, Auxerrois, 
Bruxelles; and that of z in deuxieme, second ; sixieme, sixth ; 
sixain, sextain ; dixieme, tenth ; dix-huit, eighteen ; dix-neuf, 
nineteen. 

Except in proper names, and in words borrowed from the 
Greek, final x is generally silent. Thus, sound the #in Ajaos 
and P/ienix ; but not in heureux, happy; croix, cross. 

Z is pronounced as in the English word zone. When final, 
it is silent, except in gaz, gas ; and in some proper names, as, 
Rhodez. 

RULES OF PRONUNCIATION IN READING AND SPEAKING. 

All that precedes relates to the sound of words when they 
are read separately ; but in reading phrases, attention must be 
paid to what follows : 

First Rule. Final consonants are generally articulated 
before a word beginning with a vowel or h mute. Read, mon 
petit ami, my little friend ; as if spelt, monpeti tami. 

N. B. As the sound of many of these consonants is altered, when 
they are carried to a next word, a list of them will follow these rules 
and remarks. 

Second Rule. When a word ending in e mute is followed 
by one that begins with a vowel or h mute, the last syllable of 
the first word is joined in pronouncing with the first syllable 
of the next word, and forms but one syllable with it. Read r 

Wha*- are the exceptions ? — How many sounds has z?— How can they be dis- 
tinguished ?— In what words does it differ from the English?— In what words has 
it the sound of ss?— When must final .r be sounded?— How is z pronounced?— 
How when final ? — What is the first rule to be observed in connecting words 
together ?— What is the second rule ? 



44 PRONUNCIATION 

la France entiere, the whole of France, as if spelt La Fran- 
c'en-tiere; honnete homme, honest man, as if spelt honne- 
Vhomme. 

Remark. As this rule is altogether founded on euphony, 
that is to say, intended to produce an agreeable sound, it would 
be wrong to observe it in every circumstance. Thus, no .letter 
must be carried to a next word, 1st, When it would produce a 
harsh sound, or one heard a few syllables before ; 2d, When 
the least stop is made between the two words, whatever may 
be the occasion of it. 

N. B. It may be laid down as a rule, that no stop should be 
made between two words, when the first qualifies, determines,, 
or modifies the second ; as, for instance, the article before its 
noun, the adjective before its substantive, and the substantive 
before the adjective ; the noun, pronoun, or adverb before the 
verb ; the verb before its pronoun, adverb, object, or end ; the 
adverb before an adjective or participle. In these instances, 
therefore, the final consonants must be generally sounded be- 
fore a vowel or h mute. 

Third Rule. All final consonants that are to be articulated 
when a word stands alone, or before the consonant of another 
word, preserve the same articulation before a vowel. 

Remark. No consonant must be articulated, and no elision 
made before the words, out, yes, unieme, first, onze, eleven, 
and onzieme, eleventh, which are used as if they commenced 
with an aspirated h. 

The s that precedes une is not carried to this word in the 
phrase, vers les une heure, about one o'clock. 

A LIST OF THE FINAL CONSONANTS AND THEIR ARTICULA- 
TIONS BEFORE A VOWEL OR h MUTE. 

C, thus connected to the next word, and even ct, are sound- 
ed like k ; as, croc-en-jambe, trip; il est circonspect et reserve, 
he is circumspect and r?served. 

D takes the sound of t ; as un grand homme, a great man. 

F is sounded like v in the word neuf; as, neuf enfans, nine 
children. It is always silent in clef, key. 

G takes the sound of k ; as, de rang en rang, from rank 
to rank. 

L is never carried to the next word, in words the final I of 
which has been marked silent under the head of- that letter. 
There is, however, an exception in the word gentil, the I of 

When must the final letter not be carried ? — What are the words between 
which no stop must be made ? — What is the third rule ? — What are the words 
before whicli no consonant mus' be carried? — How are c and ct connected with 
the next vowel? — What sound does, d assume? — Fn what word does /take the 
sound of vl— What sound does final g assume ?-— What is said of I? 



PRONUNCIATION* 45 

which is carried to the next word, when this begins with a 
vowel or h mute; as, gentit enfant, amiable child; but the I 
is silent in the plural. 

iV, when nasal and followed by a word with which it is in- 
separably united, (except, however, when that n belongs to a 
substantive,) is sounded as nn, the first of which is nasal, and 
the second articulated with the following word : Read, bonami, 
good friend, as if spelt bo n nami. Yet the sound of that n 
must be scarcely sensible. 

When the final n belongs to a substantive, it preserves the 
nasal sound, and the next word is pronounced entirely distinct 
from it ; as in passion aveugle, blind passion. 

When the n or m in the last syllable of a word is followed 
by another consonant, that consonant is carried to the next 
word ; as, un savant artiste, a learned artist. But if this con- 
sonant be c or p, it remains silent and the two words are pro- 
nounced separately ; as, ce banc est long, that bench is long ; 
un champ ensemence, a sowed field. 

Although nt be silent in the third person plural of verbs, the 
t is carried to the next word ; as, Us parlent ainsi, they speak 
thus. 

P is never carried to the next word, except in coup, blow, 
beaucoup, much, trop, too much. 

R, in the present of the infinitives of all the verbs ending in 
er, is not carried, except in poetry. 

When r is followed by a consonant at the end of a word, the 
r alone is connected with the next ; as un sort agreable, a 
pleasant fate ; unless the second consonant be c, which, accord- 
ing to the rules of that letter, is always articulated ; as, arc- 
en-ciel, rainbow. 

# takes the sound of z } as, vous avez, you have. 

$S } in the different inflexions of verbs, is not carried in com- 
mon conversation. 

T is sounded before a vowel in fort, very ; as, il est fort 
aimable, he is very amiable : but the r only is carried in fort, 
strong ; as, il est fort et grand, he is strong and tall. ' 

Tis always carried to a next vowel or h mute, in the third 
person singular of the verb etre, to be; as, ilest heureux,he 
is happy ; but it is always silent in the conjunction et, and ; as, 
Jean ei Andre, John and Andrew. 

X is like z ; as, parlez aux enfans, speak to the children ; 
six hommes, six men. • 

When and how is n carried 1 — How is it with the n that belongs to a substan- 
tive?— How is it with a final consonant preceded by n? — What is said of final 
nt?— When is final p heard? — When is r carried in verbs ending in er? — Which 
of the two final consonants is carried in words ending in rt or rdl — Which in 
words ending in re ?— What sound does s assume ?— In what words is t heard?— 
\Vhat sound does x assume ? 



46 PRONUNCIATION. 

Zls always silent in nez, nose. It may not be, in common 
conversation, carried to a next word commencing with a vowel 
or h mute ; but it must be heard in dignified style. 

OF READING AND EMPHASIS. 

There is in every phrase some word or words which require 
to be pronounced with more stress than the others ; but no 
rule can be given on this subject, as all depends upon the sense 
of the phrase and the importance of the word. The reasons 
of the stress on such or such word are nearly the same in all 
languages. 

But there are in French several words of different meanings, 
which are only distinguished by a peculiar inflexion of the 
voice. For instance, Je suis signifies both lam and I follow : 
thus, je suis cet homme may signify lam or I follow that man. 
The sense, however, can easily be determined, because the 
emphasis falls upon suis that means follow, and not upon suis 
that signifies am. 

In the same manner stir, sure, can be distinguished from sur, 
on. Sept, seven, (pronounced se before a consonant,) from 
ces, these, and ses, his, as the emphasis is laid upon the words 
sur, sure, and sept, seven, and not upon the others. 

There are a great many more words, that, having the same 
sound and different meanings, might be distinguished in a like 
manner ; but, except those that have been just mentioned, there 
is perhaps none that can lead to equivocation, if we consider 
the words that accompany it and its place in the sentence. 



GENERAL RULES TO BE OBSERVED IN SPELLING. 






1. In French, as well as in English, n cannot precede b or p. 
The letter m is always used before these letters ; yet we find 
an exception in embonpoint. 

2. A double consonant cannot come immediately after an- 
other consonant. The words transsubstantiation, transsuda- 
tion, and derivatives, and the imperfects of the subjunctives of 
the verbs venir, tenir, que je vinsse, que je tinsse, and their 
derivatives, are excepted. 

3. No French word ends with a double consonant. 

4. Y cannot be prefixed to e mute. The vowel i fulfils its 
place. 

When is final z silent ?— What is said of emphasis in reading phrases ?— What 
are the words given as examples ?— What is the first of the general rales 
observed in spelling 7— What is the second?— What is the third,?— The fourth ? ' 



PRONUNCIATION. 47 

Remark. If a word has to be divided at the end of a line, 
let the division be made according to the rules given in the pre- 
liminary observations ; and particularly never end a line with 
an apostrophe. 

on euphony.* 

Euphony is the cause of many alterations and exceptions to 
the general rules in French. The causes that may determine 
these exceptions founded on euphony, are the two following : 

1st. Two mute e's cannot come in two successive syllables, 
as was explained page 23. 

2d. If a word ending in a vowel (except e mute) be followed 
by a word beginning with a vowel or h mute, as no elision can 
be made, the meeting of these two vowels produces a sort of 
gaping called hiatus, which careful writers avoid by altering the 
sentence. In poetry, a hiatus is a fault. But in prose, some 
words are so intimately connected together, that although they 
produce a hiatus, they can only be used in the order in which 
they are placed ; as, tu as, thou hast ; ta avais, thou hadst. 
These expressions, on that account, are never used in poetry. 

The learner will be made acquainted, in the proper place, 
with the different means employed in observing the rule on the 
two e's, or in preventing the hiatus. 

Observation. The above rules on pronunciation have been extract- 
ed from the most approved modern grammarians. Many of those 
resulting from the comparison between the French and English lan- 
guages and the arrangement of the vowels are entirely new. 

What is Euphony 1— What are the changes occasioned by Euphony deter- 
mined by. 

* Euphony is a word derived from the Greek, which signifies agreeable sound, 



PART I. 



This Grammar is divided into three parts; the first being a step to 
the second. These three parts are very closely connected ; but the 
first contains little else than the explanation of the difficulties which it 
is necessary to know, in order to be able to write the exercises contain- 
ed in the second and third parts. 




OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

We distinguish in French ten sorts of words, which are 
called Parts of Speech. They are the noun or substantive, 
article, adjective, pronoun, verb, participle) adverb, preposi- 
tion, conjunction, and interjection. 

CHAPTER I. 

OF THE NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE. 

The substantive or noun is a word which serves to name a 
person or thing; as, Pierre, Peter ; livre, book. 

We call substantive proper, or proper name, that which is 
applied to a particular person or thing; as, Cesar, Caesar; 
Londres, London ; Paris, Paris: and substantive common, 
that which belongs to a whole class of objects ; as, homme, 
man ; eheval, horse ; livre, book ; those words answering for 
any man, any horse, any book. 

OF THE GENDER AND NUMBER. 

There are but two genders in French, the masculine and the 
feminrne ; so that all substantives which are in the neuter gen- 
der in English, are either masculine or feminine in French. 

There are two numbers, the singular and plural. The plu- 
ral is, as in English, generally formed by adding s to the 
singular. 

The exceptions to that general rule will form the second section of 
Chapter II. 
\ — . » 

How many parts of speech are there ?— What is a noun ?— What is a proper 
name 1 — A common name 1 — How many genders are there in French 1 — How 
many numbeis I 



GENDER. 49 

As the distinction of the two genders may present some difficulty, 
the attention of the learner must be directed to the following explana- 
tions. 

RULES ON THE GENDER. 

The gender of French nouns may be known by the ap- 
plication of two rules: 1st, that of the signification; 2d, that 
of the termination. 

As that of the signification must be first applied, the second 
will be only referred to, if there is, in the former, no class of 
substantives amongst which the word, the gender of which is 
looked for, may be placed, h mast therefore be understood, 
that the rule of the signification overrules that of the termina- 
tion. 

GENDER OF NOUNS ACCORDING TO THEIR SIGNIFICATION. 

1st. The no an which serves to name a male being, or one 
that we are accastomed to consider as male, is masculine ; as, 
un horn me, a man ; nn ange, an angel. 

2d. The noun which serves to name a female being, or one 
that we are accustomed to consider as female, is feminine ; as, 
une femme, a woman ; une furie, a fury. 

N. B. These rules, being laid down for individuals, are not applica- 
ble to masses. For instance, an tirmy must not be considered mascu- 
line, although composed of men. The gender of such nouns is to be 
found by the rules of termination. 

3d. When the name of an animal is indifferently applied to 
the male and the femile, its gender is known by its termina- 
tion. Une alouette, a lark, is therefore always feminine, ac- 
cording to its termi nation, as will be shortly explained. 

N. B. Should the male or female be particularly alluded to, it might 
be said that the animal is un mile or une fefkelle, and the pronouns re- 
presenting these words should agree with them in gender and number. 

4th. When a substantive, expressing some qualification, is 
applied to a man or a womui, its gender is generally that of 
the person to whom it is applied. Ex.: Un etranger, a male 
stranger ; une etrangcre, a female stranger. 

Explanations relative to some very singular exceptions to this rule, 
to the use of these words, and of those which are of two genders, ac- 
cording to their signification or number, also on the number of some 
nouns, will be found in the first chapter of the Second Part, to which 
the learner may refer. 

How can the genders be distinguished ?— What are the nouns that are masca- 
line, according to their signification 1 

5 



50 , GENDER* 

5th. All names of the days, months, and seasons ; those o 
trees, shrubs, metals, colors, languages ; all those of measure 
and weight, $c, belonging to the new metrical system ; num- 
bers and fractions, are masculine. 

One tree and a few shrubs are feminine ; viz., yeuse, French 
oak ; bourdaine, black-elder ; epine, thorn, and its compounds ; 
ronce, briar ; hicble, wall-wort ; vigne, vine. 

Collective nouns of number are also feminine ; as, une 
douzaine, a dozen. La moitie, the half, is likewise feminine. 

6th. All scientific words derived from the Greek, and lately- 
introduced into the French language, are masculine, whatever 
be their termination ; as, telegraphe, telegraph. 

7th. When words belonging to the other parts of speech are 
used as substantives, they assume the masculine gender ; as, 
le juste, what is just. 

8t.i. All names of festivals, and those used to determine cer- 
tain periods of the year, are feminine, because the word fete, 
festival, is understood ; as, La Saint- Jean, St. John's festival ; 
la wi-aoitt, middle of August ; except Noel, Christmas, Carna- 
val, Carnival, and paque or pdques, when signifying Easter 
Sunday. 

9th. When the proper name of a city or country is used by 
ellipsis, and signifies some natural or artificial pioduction of 
the place, it is of the gender of the substantive for which it 
stands; as,. eft* Virginie, signifying some Virginia tobacco. 

10th. The letters of the alphabet, when named according to 
the new method, are all masculine ; but when the old names 
are given to them, the letters/, h, I, m, n, r, and s, are feminine, 
and all the others masculine. 

11th. With regard to the gender of compound nouns, it can 
only be determined when the formation of the compound nouns 
is ascertained. 

Some are used by ellipsis, and represent a substantive under- 
stood : their gender is that of this substantive ; as, rouge- 
gorge, red-breast, (a bird,) which is masculine, because oiseau, 
bird, is masculine. 

But when the first word is a verb, the compound noun 
assumes the masculine gender; as, couvre-feu, curfew, (covers 
lire.) ' v 

Others are formed by substantives, generally connected to- 
gether by a preposition : their gender is that of the principal 
Bubstantive; as, arc-en-ciel, rainbow, (bow in heaven :) that is 
masculine, because arc is masculine. 



Whal Lithe geildgr of bereer, shepherd ?— Why *— Of reine miePTi? whv? 
Of <l, Why?-0?7iro<K, Monday ?- Why '-oF S^mtc ~^1 

Of Mr* third ?-Why ?-(Tb-.«rt. of quotums ^nsAetkm^e^ ^ 



GENDER. 51 

There are finally compound nouns formed by a substantive 
and an adjective % and these preserve the gender of the 
substantive itself; as, eau forte, aqua fortis ; that is feminine, 
because eau is feminine. 

GENDER OF NOUNS ACCORDING TO THEIR TERMINATIONS. 

Nouns not ending in e mute, 

i Rule.— All words, the gender of which cannot be ascer- 
tained by their signification, must be considered as Mascu- 
j line, if they do not end in e mute. 

This rule comprises all proper names of countries, with the 
exception of Albion, la Franche-Comte : and those of cities, 
( except Won, Jerusalem, and Sion / and those which are pre- 
. ceded by la, such as, la Rochelle. 

There are several exceptions to this rule : as follows : 
All words of the following terminations are feminine. 

cion -\ EXCEPTIONS. 

M tt [Pronounce* sion ^X^UJ^k 

S £ xion } ship ; pi. wild beasts. k 

Cg gion 
nion 

j N. B. Words which terminate in 

I the above manner generally corres- 
pond to a similar English word. 

te (500) . . aparte, aside; arrete, resolu- 

tion ; benedicifce, grace before 
meals; comite, committee; 
comte, county, and com- 
pounds ; c6te, side ; ete, sum- 
mer ; pate, pie ; te, a miner's 
tool; pote,a certain title grant- 
ed to a land; precipite, preci- 
pitate ; traite, treaty ; the, tea. 

I N. B. French words in te generally 

I correspond to English words ending 

in ty. 

eur (75) . . . bonheur, happiness; cceur t 

heart, and compounds ; choeur, 
chorus; chou-fleur, cauli- 
flower ; denominateur, deno- 
minator ; deshonneur, disho- 
nor ; diviseur, divisor ; equa- 

\ Of attention?— Why?— What is the gender of bonte, goodness 1— Why ?— Of 
- p&e, pie ?-*Why ?— Of liqueur, liquor ?— Why 1— Of c<sur, heart ?— Why } 



52 



GENDER. 



EXCEPTIONS. 

teur, equator; exterieur, exte- 
rior ; honneur, honor ; inte- 
rieur, interior ; labeur, labor ; 
malheur, misfortune ; multi- 
plicateur, multiplier ; nuniera- 
teur, numerator; pleurs, tears; 
regulateur, regulator; seeteur,. 
sector; ventilateur, ventilator. 
N. B. Many of them correspond to 
English words in or. 



son (pronounced zon) 

and zon (30) 



bison, bison; blason, blazon; 
buson, buzzard; diapason, dia- 
pason ; gazon, green turf; ho- 
rison, horizon; peson, steel- 
yard; pi son, mason's tool ; poi- 
son, poison, and compounds; oi- 
s^n, gosling; tison, firebrand. 
The following words are also feminine, although they do not 
end in e mute. 



albugo 


albugo 


faint; 


hunger 


alluvion 


alluvion 


faux 


scythe 


amaryllis 


amaryllis, (a 


fin 


end 




plant) 


foi 


faith 


amitie 


friendship 


fois 


time, fold 


apres-midi 


.afternoon 


foret 


J or est 


aquatinta 


aqua-tinta 


four mi 


ant 


boisson 


drink 


gent 


tribe 


chair 


flesh 


glu 


bird Ume 


chanson 


song 


hart , 


halter 


chauve-souris 


bat 


hortensia 


hortensia 


chaux 


lime 


inimitie 


enmity 


clef or cle 


key 


lecon 


lesson 


croix 


cross 


loi 


law 


contrefacon 


counterfeiting main 


hand 


cour 
cuilier 


court, yard 
spoon 


malfacon 


5 defect (In a 
} piece of work). 


cuisson 


S dressing of 


mer 


sea 




I victuals 


merci 


thanks, mercy 


dent 


tooth 


mceurs 


manners 


dot 


dowry 


moisson 


harvest 


eau 


water 


moitie 


half , 


fa9on 


S fashion, 
I manner 


mort 


death 




mousson 


?nonsoon 



Of cargaison cargo ?-Why ?— Of poison, poison ?— Why ?— Of witter, spoon t— 
Why 1— Of habit, coat ?— Why ? &c. ^^ ? ^ W " 



nef 

noix 

niiit 

paisson 

paix 

paroi 

part 

peau 

perdrix 

pitie 

plupart 



i nave of a 
I church 

nut 

night 

food for cattle 

peace 

partition^ side 

share 

skin 

partridge 

pity 

most part 



GENDER. 




a poix 


pitch 


rar^on 


ransom 


rebellion . 


rebellion 


soif 


thirst 


ttle souris 


mouse 


surdent 


gag-tooth 


ide tnbu 


tribe 


tour 


tower 


toux 


cough 


vertu 


virtue 


vis 


screw 


voix 


voice 



53 



In order to give greater facility in finding out the gender of a word^ 
in several instances it will be observed that all words ending in 



an 

Ion 

ron 

out 

ment 



i 



► (970) are masculine without exception* 



(Many of those in ment correspond in the two languages.) 
Those ending in 

au (200) are masculine, except eau, water ; peau, skin* 

in (200) .... fin, end; main, hand, 

ct (170) .... foret, forest. 

ot (50) .... dot, dowry. 

Observation. — It will be necessary to learn of the above rules as 
much as is necessary to answer the questions placed at the foot of the 
pages ; and by consulting them attentively for a few days, and apply- 
ing them to the words used in the exercises, they will become familiar. 
The knowledge of the gender of about 4700 words will be the fruit of 
that study. 

RULES ON NOUNS ENDING IN t MUTE. 

The following rules on the gender of words ending in e mute, will be 
more difficult to remember, on account of the numerous .exceptions.. 
They ought to be studied, however, when writing the exercises, and 
by frequent recurrence to them the learner will at last conquer the 
difficulty. 

Rule.— When a word ends in e mute, it must be consider- 
ed feminine. 

This rule comprises all the names of countries and cities, 
the latter without exception. 

Some names of countries ending in e mute, are masculine: 
viz., le Bengale, Bengal ; le Mexique, Mexico ; le Peloponese y 

What is the gender of nouns ending in e mute, general rule ? 

55* 



54 GENDER. 

Peloponnesus. The following, that belong to the ancient di- 
vision of France, are not very important; le Maine, Maine; 
le Perche, Perche ; le Rouergue, Rouergue ; le Bigorre, Bi- 
gorre ; and le Vallage, Vallage. 

There are many exceptions to the above rule, as follows. 

All words of the following terminations are masculine. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

age (380) t . . cage, cage; image, image; 

nage, swimming; page, page, 
(of a book ;) plage, beach ; 
rage, rage- 

me (200) . . . alar me, alarm; ame, soul; 

amertume, bitterness ; arme, 
weapon; eoutume, custom; 
creme, cream ; ecume, foam; 
enif me, riddle ; epigram me, 
epigram; estime, esteem; 
ferme, farm; flamme, blaze, 
and compounds; forme, shape; 
gomme, gum; lame, blade ; 
larme, tear ; Yime^file ; max- 
ime, maxim; plume, pen; 
pom me, ipple ; rame, oar ; re- 
forme, reform ; rime, rhyme; 
somme, sum ; victime, victim. 

The following are also excepted, but are seldom used : 
Anagramme, anagram; bireme, biremis; bourme, white worm; 
brume, fog; chiourme, the crew of a galley; cime, top , concourme, 
curcuma; corme, sorb-apple; dime, tithe; enclume, anvil; entame, first- 
cut ; escvime, fencing ; vst&me, worsted ; frime, show ; gamme, gamut; 
gourmes, strangles; jusquiame, hen-bane ; legitime, patrimony'; palme, 
branch of a- palm-tree ; pantomime, pantomime ; paume, tennis, palm of 
the hand; plate-forme, platform; prame, flat-bottomed boat; prime, 
prime , premium ; seime, seym; trame, woof; trireme, trireme. 

tre (70) . . . chartre, charter ; fenetre, win- 

dow ; guetre, gaiter; huitre, 
oyster ; lettre, letter; montre,. 
watch, (time-piece;) piastre, 
piaster ; poutre, beam; ren- 
contre, meeting ; vitre, pane 
of glass. 

The following are also excepted, but are seldom used- 
Bistre, bistre ; dartre; scurf; £pitre, epistle; mitre, mitre; outre, lea- 
ther-vessel; tart re, tartar ; tourtre, turtle-dove. 

What is the gender of piariage, marriage ? — Why ? — Of cage, cage 1— Why ? — 
Of fantome, phantom?— Of crane, cream?— Of chapitre, chapter 1— Huitre, oyster T; 



GENDER. 55 

EXCEPTIONS. 

toire (25) f . . caquetoire, a sort of low chair; 

decrottoire, shoe-brash; ecri- 
toire, inkstand ; echappatoire 
subterfuge ; histoire, history ; 
victoire, victory. 

ice (24) . . . avarice, avarice; cicatrice, 

scar; delices, delights ; epice, 
spice; immondice, filth; in- 
justice ; injustice ; justice,J?;s» 
tice ; lice, lists; malice, ma- 
lice; matrice, a surgical 
word; milice, militia; notice, 
notice ; office, pantry ; police, 
police; premices, pi. first- 
lings ; varice, varix ; volice, 
a thin plank. 

ste (24) . . . amethyste, amethyst e; baliste, 

balista; batiste/men cambric; 
caste, tribe; fuste, foist; liste, 
list ; peste, plague ; piste, 
track; poste, post-office; veste, 
roundjacket. 

ile (20) . . . aile, wing; argile, white clay ; 

bile, bile; etoile, star; file, row; 
huile, oil; ile, island; pile, pile; 
toile, linen ; tittle, tile; vigile, 
vigil; voile, sa ik 

cle (20) . . . boucle, buckle ; bernacle, bar- 

nacle; besicles,^77ip/e glasses; 
debacle, breaking of the ice ; 
escar boucle, carbuncle ; ma- 
de, water chesnut ; maniele, 
hand fetters ; racle, scraper. 

tere (15) . . . artere, artery; panth ere, pan- 

ther. 

Besides the above words, there are many more ending in e mute that 
are of the masculine gender, and do not depend on any of the rules 
above given. 

Of Purgatovre, purgatory 1—Ecritoire, ink-stand 1 — Precipice, precipice 1 — Milice y 
militia i—Reste, remainder 1 — Peste, plague? — Crocodile, crocodile 1 — Etoile,. star 1 
—Miracle, miracle 1 — Boucle, buckle 1 — Mystere, mystery T — Artere, artery. 

N. B. These questions may be extended, and the question, Why I must be 
placed after each of them? 



56 



GENDER. 



A list of masculine substantives, ending in e mute, not de~ 
pending on any of the previous rules. 



abaque 


abacue 


astrolabe 


astrolabe 


accessoire 


accessory 


ath£n£e 


athenceum 


achores pi. 


achors 


atmosphere 


atmosphere 


acide 


acid 


augure 


augury 


acousmate 


acousma 


automate 


automaton 


acre 


acre 


axe 


axis, axle-tree 


acrostiche 


acrostic 


babeurre 


buttermilk 


acte, and compounds act 


bagne 


bagnio 


adiante 


adiantum 


bandege 


( a sort of little 
I table 


adminicule 


slight proof 


adverbe 


adverb 


barde 


slice of bacon 


aigle 
aise 


eagle 
ease 


barege 


( a sort of wool- 
I len stuff 


albatre 


alabaster 


basal te 


basalt 


allege 
alveole 


lighter , , 
t n ' l becarre 
\ a cell in a ho- 


< natural 
( (in music) 


\ ney-comb 


bejaune 


booby 


ambages pi' 


ambages 


berce 


cow-parsnip 


ambe 


(two together) beurre 


butter 


amble 


amble 


bien-etrc 


comfort 


ambre 


amber 


bievre 


beaver 


amiante 


amianthus 


Bosphore 


Bosphorus 


amulette 


amulet 


bouge 


a small room 


analectes pi. 


analects 


branle 


jogging 


androgyne 


androgyne 


breviaire 


breviary 


angle, (and com- 


' > angle 


cable 


cable 


pounds) 


cadavre 


corpse 


animalcule 


animalcule 


cadre 


frame 


anniversaire 


anniversary 


caduee*e 


mercury's wand 


antidote 


antidote 


calibre 


bore, size, sort 


antipode 
aphllie 


antipode 
aphelion 


caique 


( counter draw- 
I ing 


apocalypse 


apocalypse 


calvaire 


calvary 


aptlies pi. 


apthoz 


camee 


cameo 


apo^e 


apogeon 


camphre 


camphire 


apographe 


apographwn 


cancre 


crab-fish 


apologue 


apologue 


candelabre 


chandelier 


araxe 


araxus 


cantique 


canticle 


arbre 


tree 


capitole 


capitol 




( unity in the 


capre 


privateer 


are (& compounds 


< new system 


capricorne 


Capricorn 


aromate 


( of measure 
aromatic 


caroube 
carouge 


> ct,rob bean 


ascarides 


ascarides 


carpe 


wrist 


asphalte pi. 


asphaltos 


carosse 


coach 


aspre 


asper 


cartouche 


scroll 


asterique 


asterisk 


casque 


helmet 


astragale 


astragal 


catafalque 


catafalco 



catalogue 
catarrhe 


catalogue 
catarrh 


coq-a-I'ane 


( story of a cock 
( and abull 


caustique 
cenotaphe 


caustic 
cenotaph 


cornette 


< iron at the cornet 
\ of a wall 


cerne 


ring (circle) 


corollaire 


corollary 


chale 


shaio I 


corpuscule 


corpuscule 


chambranle 


jambs 


corsaire 


corsair 


chancre 


cancer 


cortege 


retinue 


change 


change 


coryphee 


coryphaus 


chanvre 


hemp 


cothume 


buskin 


chevre-ieuille 


honeysuckle 


coude 


elbow 


chiffre 


cypher {figure) 


couple 


pair 


ciboire 


pix 


crabe 


crab 


cidre 


cider 


crane 


skull 


cierge 


wax taper 


crepe 


crape 


cigare 


segar 


crepuseule 


twilight 


cimeterre 


scimitar 


crible 


sieve 


cimetiere 


burying-ground 


cromorne 


crumhom 


cinabre 


cinnabar 


cube 


cube 


cippe 


cippus 


culte 


worship 


cirque 


circus 


cygne 


swan 


cistophore 


cistophorus 


cyiindre 


cylinder 


cloaque 


sink 


cytise 


cytisus 


cloporte 


multipeda 


deboire 


twang 


coche 


. ( stage packet- 
\ boat 


decalogue 


decalogue 


deeombrea 


pi., rubbish 


code 


code 


decompte 


discount 


codicille 


codicil 


ded ale 


labyrinth 


coffre 


chest 


CeKces 


delight 


college 


college 


delire 


delirium 


colloque 


colloquy 


delivre 


a surgical word 


collyre 


colly Hum 


deluge 


deluge 


colosse 


colossus 


demerit© 


demerit 


colure 


colure 


derriere 


back 


colys£e 


coliseum 


desordre 


disorder 


comble 


top 


diacode 


diacodium 


comestible 


eatables 


dialecte 


dialect 


commemaire 


commentary 


dialogue 


dialogue 


commerce 


commerce 


diapedeze 


diapedesis 


comminge 


coarse mortar 


dictionnaire 


dictionary 


compte 


bill, account 


diese 


diesis 


compulsoire 


warrant 


diocese 


diocese 


conciliabule 


conventicle 


disque 


disk 


conclave 


conclave 


distique 


distich 


concombre 


cucumber 


dithyrambe 


dithyrambus; 


cone 


cone 


dividende 


dividend 


congre 


conger 


divorce 


divorce 


conte 


tale 


dogue 


bull- dog 


contraire 


contrary 


domaine 


domain 


controle 


control 


douaire 


jointure 


conventicule 


conventicle 


tfoute 


$quU 



58 



GENDER. 



dromadaire 

^change 

ell£bore 

£loge 

eUysee 

em£tique 

empire 

empire 

encombre 

ensemble 

£olipyle 

Epilogue 

Episode 

^quilibre 

^quinoxe 

erysipele 

esclandre 

escompte 

espace 

eucologe 

euphorbe 

exemple 

exemplaire. 

exergue 

exode 

exorde 

faite 

feurre 

iiacre 

fifre 

filigrane 

fleuve 

iiuide 

foie 

formulaire 

foudre 

g£nie 

genievre 

genre 

gingembre 

girofle 

gite 

givre 

glaive 

globe 

globule 

goberge 

golfe 

gone 

gouffre. 



dromedary 

exchange 

hellebore 

encomium 

elyseum 

emetic 

empire 

empyrean 

encumbrance 

whole 

eolypile 

epilogue 

episode 

equilibrium 

equinox 



uproar 

discount 

space 

S Sunday prayer- 
book 
euphorbium 
example 
copy of a book 
exergue 
exodus 
exordium 
top 
Chaff 
hack 

fife 

filigree 

large river 

fluid 

liver 

formulary 

large tun 

genius 

gin 

gender 

ginger 

cloves 

Share's form, 
lodging 
hoarfrost 
sword 
globe 
globule 

a sort of codfish 
gulf 

a sort of worm, 
abyss 



grabuge 


squabb'e 


grade 


degree 


greffe 


register's office 


grimoire 


conjurors's book 


groupe 


group 


guide 


guide, director 


gueule 


gules in heraldry 


gymnase 


gymnasium 


gynecee 


gynozcium 


gypse 


parget 


hale 


sunburning 


havre 


haven 


hecatombe 


hecatomb 


heliotrope 


turnsol 


hemisphere 


hemisphere 


hemistiche 


hemistich 


hieroglyphe 


hieroglyphic 


h ombre 


omber 


horoscope 


horoscope 


hors-d'oeuvre 


out-work 


hydrogene 


hydrogen 


hymenee 


wedlock 


hymne 


hymn, in general 


hypocondre 


hypochondriac . 


iambe 


iambus 


immeuble 


real state 


ineendie 


conflagration 


indicule 


slight indication 


in-douze, etc 


duodecimo, etc. 


insecte 


insect 


interligne 


interline 


intermede 


interlude 


intervalle 


interval 


inventaire 


inventory 


ivoire 


ivory 


jable 


notch of a cask 


jaspe 


jasper 


jeune 


fast 


fciosque 


kiosk 


labyrinthe 


labyrinth 


lange 


swaddling clothe*. 


laque 


china varnish 


largue 


offing 


laticlave 


latic-' avium 


leurre 


lure 


levitique 


leviticus 


lexique 


lexicon 


libelle 


libel 


liege 


cork 


lievre 


hare 


limbe 


limb (edgi) 


linge 


linen t clothe* 





GENDER. 


59 


liquids 


liquid 


monologue 


monologue 


litige 


litigation 


monopole 


monopoly 


lithophyte 


lythophyia 


monticule 


hillock 


livre 


book 


moufle 


pulley 


lobe 


lobe 


moule 


mould 


lobule 


lobule 


mufle 


muzzle 


logogryphe 


logogryph 


multiplicands 


multiplicand 


lombes 


loins 


murmure 


murmur 


louvre 


palace 


musee 


museum 


lucre 


lucre 


myrthe 


myrtle 


luminaire 


luminary 


narcisse 


daffodil 


luxe 


luxury 


navire 


ship 


lyeee 


lyceum 


n£cessaire 


travelling -box 


maigre 
malaise 


lean 
uneasiness 


n^crologe 


( a register of the 
{ dead 


mal-etre 


painful condition negoce 


trade 


manche 


handle 


nimbe 


glory, in painting 


manege 


riding-school 


nombre 


number, quantity 


manes 


manes 


numeraire 


coin, money 


manipule 


maniple 


obelisque 


obelisk 


manque 


want 


(Euvre 


musical work 


marbre 


marble 


olympe 


olympus 


martyre 


martyrdom 


ombre 


a game at cards 


martyrologe 


martyrology 


omoplate 


omoplate 


masque 


mask 


ongle 


nail 


massacre 


massacre 


opprobe 


disgrace 


mausoi£e 


mausolazum 


opuscule 


smrdl composition 


memdre 


meander 


orbe 


orb 


m£compte 


misrcckoning 


ordinaire 


daily fare 




(flesh meal, taken ordre 


order 


me^dianoche 


< at midnight oj 


'aorgane 


organ 




( fish day 


orgue (when 


) oi'gan, an instrur 
) ment 


melange 


mixture 


sing.) 


membre 


member, limb 


ovale 


oval 


memoire 


bill 


pacte 


pact 


menisque 


meniscus 




C a sort of drets 


menologe 


menology 


pagne 


< among unciviliz- 


mensonge 


lie (a story) 




( ed people 


mercure 


mercury 


pampre 


leafy vine branch 


merle 


blackbird 


panache 


bunch of feather t 


merite 


merit 


panegyrique 


panegyric 


mesaise 


distress 


pantographe 


pantograph 


m£t£ore 


meteor 


paque 


easter 


meuble 


piece of furniture paradoxe 


paradox 


microscope 


microscope 


paragraphe 


paragraph 


mille 


mile 


parallele 


comparison 


mode 
modele 


mood 
model 


paraphe 


f flourish in sing- 
i ing 


module 


module 


parapluie 


umbrella 


mole 


pier 


s 


{ commercial que*- 
\ tion 


monde 


world 


pare re 


monocorde 


monochord 


parjure 


perjury 



60 



GENDER. 



parterre 

participe 

parachute 

patrimoine 

pecule 

pgdicule 

pedoncule 

peigne 

penates 

pendule 

pene 

pentacorde 

pentateuque 

pe>ieondre 

pe>ig£e 

perihelie 

peiinee 

period e 

pe>itoine 

personne 

p£tale 

petroie 

peuple 

phalene 

phare 

ph^nomene 

phoque 

phosphore 

piege 

pique 

pivoine 

planisphere 

plebiscite 

pleige 

poele 

poile 

po.^e 

poivre 

pole 

polype 

polypode 

poncire 

ponche 

ponte 

pore he 

pore 

porphyre 

portique 

pourpre 

pre" imbule 

pr^cepte 



l pit (in a theatre) .^ 

( flower-garden r 

•participle pre*limin aires 

parachute prelude 

patrimony prestige 

peculium pr£texte 

pedicle principe 
the principal stem privilege 

comb prodige 

penates prologue 

pendulum prone 

bolt of a lock propyl^e 

pentechord protocole 

penlateuch proverbe 

perichondrum proxenete 

perigee prytan£e 

perihelium PJS m ^ e 

ptrin&um pylore 
the highest pitch quadrille 

peritonozum quaterne 






nobody 

petal 

petroleum 

people 

phalena 

lighthouse 

phenomenon 

phoca 

phosphoms 

snare 

spade at cards 

gnat-snapper 

planisphere 

plt'biscitum 

pledge 

> stove, canopy 

starboard 

pepper 

pole 

polypus 

polypodium 

large lemon 

punch 

punto at cards 

porch 

pore 

porphyry 

portico 

purples 

preamble 

precept 



qumconce 

quine 

quinquenove 

quinquerce 

rable 

rale 

rechange 

refuge 

regne (and comp, 

regule 

relache 

reliquaire 

remede 

remise 

renne 

repaire 

repere 

reproche 

reve 

reverbere 

ridicule 

rieble 

risque 

rite 

role, and comp. 

rosace 

rosage 

rosaire 

rouable 

rouble 

sable 

sabre 



( protestani meet- 

preliminary 
prelude 
prestige 
pretext 
principal 
privilege 
prodigy 
prologue 
short sermon 
propylaum 
protocol 
proverb 
procurer 
prytanAXim 
pigmy 
pylorus 
game at cards 
quaterne 
quincunx 
two cinques 
quinquenove 
quinquertium 
saddle j f venison 
rallus 
change 
refuge 
) reign, and comp. 
re gut us 
relaxation 
shrine for relics 
remedy 
livery-coach 
rein- deer 
haunt 
mark 
reproach 
dream 
lantern 
ridicule 
goose-grass 
risk 
rite 

roll, and comp, 
hollyhock 
rose-bay 
rosary 

rake for an oven. 
Russian coin 
sable 
sabre 








GENDER. 


sacerdoce 


sacerdoce 


synode 


sacre 


consecration 


tarse 


sacrilege 


sacrilege 


telegraphe 


salaire 


salary 


telescope 


sanctuaire 


sanctuary 


temple 


sarigue 


opossum 


terne 


scandale 


public offence 




scapulaire 


scapulary 


tete-a-tete 


scarabee 


scarabaus 




scolie 


( scolium, in ma 
( thematics. 


- texte 
thyrse 


scrupule 


scruple 


timbre 


secretaire 


secretary 


tintamarre 


seigle 


rye . 


tormerre 


seminaire 


seminary 


topique 


senatus-consulte 


t ( senatus consul 
' \ turn 


- torse 
toxique 


sepulchre 


sepulchre 


trapeze 


serpentaire 


serpentarius 


treile 


sexe 


sex 


trebule 


sexte 


sextus 


triomphe 


signe 


sign 


trochisque 


silence 


silence 


trochee 


simple 


medicinal kerb 


troene 


simulacre 


simidacre 


troglodite 


singe 


ape 


trone 


site 


site 


trope 


socque 


sandal 


trophee 


solde 


balance of a bill 


tropique 


soliloque 


soliloquy 


trouble 


sommaire 


compendium 


tube 


songe 


dream 


tubercule 


souffle 


breath 


tumulte 


souffre 


sulphur 


tuorbe 


sourire 


smile 


type, and comp. 


spadille 


spadilla 


ulcere 


specifique 


specific 


vague 


spondee 


spondee 


vase 


squelette 


skeleton 


vaudeville 


squirre 


scirrhosity 




•tade 


stade 


vehicule 


stalle 


stall 


ventricule 


sterne 


a sort of bird 


vepre 


etokfiche 


dried cod-fish 


verbe 


store 


small blinds 


vermicelle 


stygmate 


stigma 


verre 


suaire 


winding- sheet 


vertige 


subterfuge 


subterfuge 


vestiaire 


subside 


subsidy 


vestibule 


sucre 


sugar 


vestige 


suicide 


suicide 


viatique 


syllabaire 


spelling-book 


vide 


symbole 


symbol 


vignoble 



61 

synod 

tarsus 

telegraph 

telescope 

temple 

terne 
C private conversa- 
< Hon bstioeen two 
( persons 

text 

thyrsus 

stamp 

great noise 

thunder 

topic 

trunk of a statue 

poison 

trapezium 

trefoil 

caltrop M 

triumph 

pill 

troche 

privet 

vjren 

throne 

trope 

trophy 

tropic 

trouble 

tube 

tubercle 

tumult 

large lute 

type, and comp. 

ulcer 

vague 

vase, vessel 
( ballad, a short 
\ comedy 

vehicle 

ventricle 

dusk, evening 

verb 

vermicelli 

glass 

dizziness 

vestry 

entry 

track 

viaticum 

vacuum 

vineyard plot 



62 ARTICLES AND PREPOSITIONS* 

( cloth of vizori '* 
v |g°g ne \ hair 

vinaigre vinegar 

violoncelle violoncello 

viscere intestines 

vocabulaire vocabulary 

Remark. There are many words which are alike in both languages. 
They might be classed according to their various terminations ; but 
there are so many exceptions, that the learner would be misled more 
than assisted by it, and it is thought preferable that he should trust 
altogether to his memory. 



vote 


vote 


vulgaire 


vulgar 


vulneVaire 


vulnerary 


zele 


zeal 


zodiaque 


zodiac 






CHAPTER II, 

OF THE FRENCH ARTICLES AND PREPOSITIONS de AND C. 
SECTION I. 

An article is a word placed before nouns to limit or deter- 
mine their significations. 

There is but one article in French, which corresponds to the 
English definite article the. Le, masc. sing: la, Jem. sing: 
les, plur. for both genders. 

But as it is important to establish a close comparison be- 
tween the French and English languages, it will be well to 
mention in this place, that the English indefinite article a or an 
is expressed in French by the numeral adjective un, masc, 
une, fern., and that the adjective some or any is translated into 
French by the definite article le, la, les, preceded by the pre*- 
position de, as will be explained below. For convenience 
sake le, la, P, les. will be called definite article ; un, une, in- 
definite article, and du, de la, de V, and des, standing for some 
or any will be named partitive article. 

The learner will therefore express the article the, by 

he, before a singular noun masculine ; as, le roi, the king ; 

La, before a singular noun feminine, la reine, the queen ; 

Les, before plural nouns of either gender, les sujets the 
subjects: 

And a or an by 

Un, before a sing, noun masc. ; as, un pcre, a father ; 

Une, before a sing, noun fern.; une mere, a mother. 

Remark. When le or la comes before words beginning 
with a vowel or an h mute, the e or a is cut off, and its place 
supplied by an apostrophe ; as, l'empereur, the emperor ; Pim- 
peratiice, the empress. This suppression is called an elision. 

N. B. See what is said of the letter h in the pronunciation under the 
head of that letter. 

It will be remembered that the plural is generally formed by 
adding s. 

What is an article ?— How do you express the in French 1— How, when the wor<* 
commences with a vowel or h mute? — How do you express a or an? — How i s 
the plural generally formed ? 



ARTICLES AND PREPOSITIONS. 03 

N. B. As the English alone is given in the exercises, it will be ne- 
cessary to look for the words in a dictionary. But previous to that, 
the vocabulary at the end of the grammar must be consulted for rea-» 
sons there explained. 

EXERCISE. 

N. B. Every exercise will be preceded by an indication of what th# 
learner must know, before he writes it, notwithstanding the explanation 
placed at the head of the exercise. What follows is an example of iL 

The verb to have affirmatively ; the first chapter on substantives through the 
first part of the Piles on the gender, down to the word tiscn, firebrand. 

You have a brother. He has a wife. They have a horse. The 
farmer has a cow. The milliner has a sister. We have had an oak, a 
plane-tree and a willow, in the garden. The corporation had a satis- 
faction. The Spaniards had the fortification, but we had the bastion. 
They have a religion. Have an opinion. He had a lilach and a vine. 
In the spring we used to have the flowers, and in the summer or the 
autumn we used to have the fruit. They had the will and the capaci- 
ty. We shall have the pie. I had the tea and you had the milk. The 
adjutant had the horse, but the soldiers had the liquor. Let us have a 
ventilator here. We shall have a house in the hamlet. The goldsmith 
has the gold, but the broker had the diamond. Nov/ we shall have a 
conversation, here on the green turf. They have had a sermon in the 
prison. Since you have a rabbit, we shall have a dinner. I shall have 
the money or the goods. They have several surgeons in the hospital, 

N. B. This exercise must be corrected, either in each bock separate- 
ly, or by writing it upon the board ; but what is very important also, 
is to give English phrases, similar to those of the exercises, to be trans- 
lated immediately into French, by the pupil, after which, French 
phrases will be asked, in the same manner. This must be continued 
after each lesson during the whole course of the instruction. It will 
also be a good plan to hear the pupil read, in French, the exercises out 
of the grammar, after he has written them. 

SECTION II. 

A preposition is, as will be seen under that part of speech, a 
word used to express some relation of different things to each 
other. 

AH the prepositions may be placed before the articles le, la, 
les, and even before un andwne, without altering these words 
in the least, as in the above exercise, dans, in ; sur, on, &c; ex- 
cept, however, de, which signifies of, from, and sometimes, 
with, and a, which signifies, to^ or at, which require particu- 
lar attention. 

These two prepositions, whatever may he the English word 
which they represent, instead of being simply placed, as in 
English, before the article, are sometimes contracted with it, 
and the two words form but one. 

What is a preposition 1 — Do prepositions generally produce any alteration of 
the articles when prefixed to them ?*-*■ What are those which require particular 
ftttention? 




64 ARTICLES AND PREPOSITIONS. 

W That contraction always takes place in the plural. Ths 
most important observation, thus to be made before trans- 
lating of the, and to the, is that of the number of the substan- 
tive. If the noun be plural, the preposition and article will 
be translated as in the following 

EXAMPLE OF A PLURAL N0I7N. 

Les anges the angels 

des anges, and not de les of the angels 

aux anges, and not a les to the angels 

The contraction does not take place in the singular number, 
when the word begins with a vowel or h mute, in which case 
the preposition and articles are used separately, but the arti- 
cle loses the e or a, and takes an apostrophe, as explained 
above. Then if a word is not plural, it is important to observe 
what its first letter is, before translating of the, and to the. 

EXAMPLE OF A SINGULAR NOUN, COMMENCING With tt 

vowel, or h mute.^ 
L'enfant the child Theroine the heroine 

de l'enfant of the child de Pheroine of the heroine 
a l'enfant to the child a l'hero'ine to the heroine 

But the contraction takes place in the singular number be- 
fore a noun, which begins with a consonant or h aspirated, and 
which belongs to the masculine gender. 

There is no contraction when the noun is feminine singular. 

When, therefore, a singular noun commences with a conso- 
nant or h aspirated, it is important to observe its gender. 

EXAMPLES OF NOUNS, 

Masculine, Singular, Commencing with 

a consonant h aspirated. 

le roi the king le heros the hero 

du roi and not de le of the king du heros and not de le 

au roi and not a le to the king au heros and not a le 

Feminine, Singular, commencing with a consonant or h aspirated. 
la reine the queen 

de la reine of the queen 

a la reine to the queen 

With tin and une there is no contraction : but the preposi- 
tion de, loses the e, and takes an apostrophe. 

What is the first thing to be observed when you have to translate of the or to 
the?- How do you express of the in the plural 1—To the?—\f the noun is singu- 
lar, what is the most important thing to observe?— How do you express ofthe y 
when the noun is singular, and begins with a vowel or h mute *—To the?— When 
the noun begins with a consonant or h aspirated what is to be observed?— How 
do you express of the before a noun, masculine, singular, that begins with a con- 
sonant or h aspirated?— To the ? —How do you express of the before a fen ' 
s ingular noun, that begins with a consonant or h aspirated 1-^fo the ] 






ARTICLES AND PREPOSITIONS. 65 

EXAMPLE. 

Masculine, Feminine. 

tiii horn me a man une femme a woman 

(Pun homme of a man d'une femme of a woman 
a un homme to a man a une femme to a woman 
With proper names, prepositions are used without any arti- 
cle. But the e in de is cut off, before a vowel or h mute : as, 
Andre Andrew Paris Paris 

d'Andre of Andrew de Paris of Paris 

a Andre to Andrew a Paris to Paris 

Remark. — Proper names of countries, rivers, mountains, &c. take 
the article as will be explained hereafter, and do not, therefore, fall 
under the above rule. 

Rule.— The articles and the prepositions are invariably to 
be repeated before every substantive, and agree with it in gen- 
der and number. 

OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 

There is no possessive case in French. That English case 
is translated into French by reversing the order of the two sub- 
stantives, and expressing their relation to one another by the 
preposition de ; as, 

John's hat, le chapeau de Jean ; 

A soldier's courage, le courage d'un soldat. 

EXERCISE. 

The verb, to have, negatively, and the rules of the gender, down to the word 
rage, rage. 

You have not a soldier's courage. He had not the relation of the 
shipwreck of the Albion. I have not the amount of the brokerage ; 
but you shall have the third of the profit. Peter's sister has a bird, 
and you have a cage. You had the extract of a passage of Franklin's 
life on a page of Byron's works. They will not have the flesh of 
the animal, but they will have the skin. We had a storm during the 
night. You shall have a spoon, since you have a cauliflower. I would 
have had a part of Voltaire's letters to Frederick. They had not the 
measure of the depth of the well. She will not have a place in the 
city. You have not the map of the United States. Yv T e will not have 
the plan of London, but we have the plan of the road from Liverpool 
to the city of Manchester. They would not have had a copy of the 
president's message to the members of the house. We have had the 
copy of the mayor's letter to a lady of the neighbourhood. I have not 
the speech of the governor to the soldiers of the state. We had not the 
copy of the emperor's orders to the general. We have a partridge 
: in the yard. The landlord had not the half of the harvest, because he 
had a part of the trees of the forest. I have not had the key of the door 
They used to have a horse and gig. 

How do you express of a, masculine J — Of a, feminine ? — To a, masculine ? — 
1 To a, feminine ? — How do you express o/before a proper name ? — How, if that 
noun begins with a vowel or It mute 1— How do you express to ?— When seve- 
ral nouns come in succession, how 4o you use the article ?— How do you trans- 
late into French the English possessive case ? * 



66 ARTICLES AND PREPOSITIONS* 

OF THE PARTITIVE ARTICLE. 

Some or any is an adjective when immediately followed by a sub- 
stantive, or by an adjective and a substantive , if not it is a pronoun, 
as will be hereafter explained. 

It is an adjective in the phrase: J have some excellent bread. Have 
you any wine ? 

It is a pronoun in — I have some. Have you any ? 

Rule. When the adjective some or any expresses a cer- 
tain quantity of it is translated into French by the words cor- 
responding to. of the : viz. du, de l\ de la, des, which words are 
then called partitive articles. 

EXAMPLE. 

I have some bread j J'ai du pain. 

This mode is evidently elliptical, that is to say, some words have 
been omitted to shorten the expression ; for when we say du pain, of 
the bread, for some bread, the words a certain quantity are understood. 

When, therefore, some or any is used to determine an individual, 
that is to say, an object that is not divided ; as, some house, it is not 
translated as above, the word quelque or quelques is then used. This, 
as well as all other difficulties relating to these adjectives, will be treat- 
ed of in the second part of this Grammar. 

_ It would be wrong to translate some by du, de l\ or, de la, in phrases 
similar to this : 

If I could fend some house in your neighbourhood. 

N* B. Remember that every noun must be preceded by the article. 

EXERCISE. 

The verb to have interrogatively, and the rules on the gender down to the word 
panthere, panther. 

Have you a pen? Yes; I have a pen, and Peter has some ink. 
Have they any apples? T key have an apple and some pears. We 
used to have some oil with the salad. Hs had some pride. Have they 
had any beans? No; but they had some herrings. Have you any 
tragedies or comedies ? Have they had any cream ? No ; but they 
had some tea and milk. Has he an idea of the weight of a diadem ? 
Shall I have an oyster ? They will not have a piastre" for John's watch. 
Had he the key of the desk ? They had not a lady at the theatre. 
Has she the rest of the list? Have you the history of the foundation 
of thb conservatory ? Have' they any strangers in the militia ? Had 
he a vision during the service? Have thev a crocodile? Would you 
have any buckles ? They had an account of the miracle. Has he the 
character of a philosopher? 

Rule 1st. After a negative verb, the adjective any, is ex- 



How can you find out whether some or any is an adjective or a pronoun?— 
How Ho you express some or any when an adjective?— How do you'express some 
or any before the noun of a single object which it serves to determine, without 
any reference to quantity ; for instance some house?— How do you express a»jc 
after a negative verb ? . 



ARTICLES AND PREPOSITIONS. 67 

pressed by the preposition, de alone, as it excludes every idea of 
quantity. De is used there to establish the relation between 
the verb and the noun. 

EXAMPLE. 



I have not any water, ) Je pas d'eau. 
or I nave no water, > r 



N. B. No, between a verb and a substantive, is translated like 
not any. 

Rule 2d. The article a or an is also translated by the prepo- 
sition de after a negative verb ; except after the verb to be, for 
reasons that shall be explained. 

EXAMPLE. 

I have not a friend. Je n'm pas d' ami. 

Remark. There is a strong resemblance between the singular un, 
une and the plural des, signifying some or any. 

. As the rules relating to one of these articles are also generally applied 
to the other, the latter may be considered as the plural of the former. 

Rule 3d. But with interrogative-negative verbs the adjective 
some or any, is translated as usual, by du, de l\ de la, and 
des, and a or an by un and une, as the phrase is not more ne- 
gative than affirmative 3 since a question is asked. 

example. 

Have you not some or any books ? ) ^avez-vouz pas des livres ? 
Have you no books I > r 



i you 
he no 
Has he no sister ? 



Has he not a sister? ? -*/»*.» •» 1 

. c N'a-Uil pas une sceur ? 



EXERCISE. 



The verb to have interro-negatively, and the remainder of the rules on the gen- 
der, relating to masculine nouns ending in e mute. 

We had some butter and bread, but we had no sugar. Had you not 
some cider ? Yes, v/e had some cider and beer ; but v/e had no glasses. 
Without John's politeness you would have had no dictionary. Have 
h ey not a copy of Thomson's Seasons ? Has he not a book ? Will 
she have an umbrella ? When shall we have some pepper and vinegar 1 
The merchant's clerk has no salary. We have had some sand. We had 
some rye, and now we have some flour. When shall we have a verb ? 
Will you not have a copy of Milton's poem to-morrow ? No, but I shall 
have Voltaire's Henriad. Have you not had a sabre? They have not 
had any camphire, because they had no phial. 

How a or an ? — How when the verb is interro-negative ?— How do you trans- 
late the verbs construed with no ? 



68 ARTICLES AND PREPOSITIONS* 

SECTION III. 

OF THE FORMATION OF THE PLURAL OF FRENCH SUBSTANTIVES. 

General Rule. The plural of substantives is formed by 
the addition of an s to the singular ; as, 

table, sing. tables, plur. 

1st Exception. All nouns ending m the singular in s, x y 
and z, remain the same in the plural j as, 

Le fils the son les fils the sons 

]a voix the voice les voix the voices 

le nez the nose les nez the noses 

2d Exception. All those which end in au, eu or ceu, form 
their plural by having x added to their singular; as, 

Le bateau the boat les bateaux the boats 

]e feu the fire les feux the fires 

le vceu the vow les vceux the voios 

3d Exception. Nouns ending in al, change al into auoo \ 
as, 

Le cheval the horse les chevaux the horses 

le mal the evil les maux the evils 

Remark. Five nouns ending in al follow the general rule, 
and take s in the plural. They are : 

Bal, ball, (danse) ; cat, callosity ; carnaval, carnival ; pal, pale, (in 
heraldry ;) and regal, treat ; the plural of which is bals, cats, &c. 

4th Exception. Nouns ending in ant or ent, having more 
than one syllable, drop the t and take an s in the plural. 

This rule, which has been adopted by the academy, forms, in the 
opinion of some of the best grammarians, a useless exception, and is 
not, on that account, generally followed. 

Monosyllables retain the t. 



L'ertfant 


the child 


Les enfans 


the children 


le moment 


the moment 


les momens 


the moments 


le gant 


the glove 


les gants 


the gloves 


la dent 


the tooth 


les dents 


the teeth 



Some Nouns are entirely Irregular. 
The following take x in their plural: — 

What is the general rule for forming the plural in French?— How is the plu- 
ral of words ending in s ?— In x ?— In z ?— In ou ?— In eu or <ev 1— In al ?— What are 
the word.s ending in al that follow the general rule ?— What is to be observed 
concerning noun8 of more than one syllable ending infant and ent 1— Concerning 
monosyllables of that termination ?— What are the five words besides those 
above given that take k in the plural? 



NOUN». 69 

Bijou, jexoel; eailloit, pebbte ; chou, cabbage ; genou, knee ; hibou, 
oivl ; pou, louse ; pi. bijoux, cailloiix, &c. 

N. B. All other nouns ending in ou take an s, according to the ge- 
neral rule. 

The following nouns change ail into aux : 

Bail, tease ; corail, coral ; email, enamel ; plumail, feather-broom ; 
a oupirail, sir-hole ; travail, work ; vantail, leaf of a folding door; ventail^ 
fhe lower part of a helmet : pi. baux, cor aux, &c. 

N. B. All other nouns ending in ail, follow the general rule and 
take 5. 

The word travail is also spelt with an 5 in the plural, when it means 
traves, or written summaries in administrations. 

Aieul, grandfather, used in the plural and signifying an- 
cestors, becomes aieux, but if it means grandfathers, it is re- 
gular and is spelt azeuls. 

The plural of ail, garlick, is aulx ; but it is seld'om used, 
Gousses d'ail, cloves of garlick, is preferred in the plural. 

Bercai], sheepfold, has no plural. 

Betail, cattle, makes bestiaux. 

Ciel, when it signifies sky or heaven, changes into cieux \ 
but, when used to express the sky in painting, the top of a 
bedstead, or when it is metaphorically used for climate, it re- 
mains regular. 

(Eil, eye, changes into yeux, when it means the eyes of ani- 
mated beings. In any other instance it is regular : as ? 

(Eils-de- bceuf, ovals, (in architecture,) bulVs eyes. 

(Eils-de-chat, caVs eyes, (precious stone), &c 

Yet we say, yeux du pain, du frontage, <fc. for the hole® 
of bread, of cheese, &c. 

EXERCISE. 

The officers of the palace have the flowers of the King's gardens. 
Have you any faults in the composition ? Yes ; I have some crosses. 
I have had the relation of the explosion of the gases of the mine. When 
shall we have some pine-apples ? He had the hammers of the shoe- 
maker. You will have some horses for the officers. The gods of the 
pagans will not have a temple on the surface of the earth. Let us have 
the rubies of the princess, because the goldsmith has the money. Since 
1 have a dollar 1 will have some cakes and fire-crackers in a moment. 



Those which change ail into aux ?— How do other words ending in ou and ai2 
form their plural ?— When can you use travails 1— When a'ieuls ?— When aieux 1 — 
What must you observe with regard to Qill—BerGain—Qtil and ail ]— What i$ 
the plural of del and ail ? 



70 ADJECTIVE. 

They have not had the pictures of the museum. He would not hays 
had the leeks of Peter's garden. He has some friends among the car- 
dinals and the generals. The voavs of the nation had the advantage 
over the interest of the president's nephews. They will not have any 
balls. We had some playthings for the children. He had several re- 
giments. They have some nails, screws, and bolts. Had they not 
the gloves and fans of John's sisters. They will have no jewels. Have 
you an idea of the immensity of the works of the Romans. The go- 
vernor of the arsenal had the helms of the ships. The farriers of the 
village have some traves for the horses of the lieutenants. He will 
have the cattle of the farmer's grandfathers. Mary's eyes have xi& 
expression. 



CHAPTER III. 

OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
SECTION I. 

An adjective is a word which expresses the quality of the 
substantive to which it is added. 

A word is known to be an adjective, when it can be connect- 
ed with the word <personne, person ; or chose, thing : as, bon, 
good; mauvais, bad; grand, large; petit, small. 

Remark. A present or past participle, used to qualify a 
Substantive, is considered an adjective, and follows the rules 
of that part of speech. Many present and past participles are 
even called adjectives in French by their frequent use as such. 

Rule, In French the adjective, and also the present and 
past participles when used as adjectives, must agree in gender 
and number with the substantives which they qualify. 

OF THE FORMATION OP THE FEMININE AND PLURAL OF THS FRENCH 
ADJECTIVES. 

Rule. The adjective is generally made feminine by the 
addition of e mute to the masculine, as. mauvais, bad ; femi- 
nine, mauvaise. 

The same rule is observed in relation to the participles : as 
tremblant, m. trembling; fern, tremblante ; eslime, m. esteem- 
ed, fern, estimee. 

Rule. The plural masculine of adjectives and participles is 
generally formed in the same manner as that of substantives, 
and is subject to the same exceptions. 

The plural feminine is formed by adding an 5 to the femi- 
nine singular, which always ends in e mute ; thus when an 

What is an adjective? — How can you know that a word is an adjective?— 
What is said about the participles ? — What is to be remarked with French ad- 
jectives ?— How is the feminine of French adjectives generally formed?— How 
js their masculine plural formed ?— The feminine plural.? 



ADJECTIVE). 71 

adjective or participle qualifies a feminine plural noun> it ought 
first to be made feminine and then plural. 

OP THE PLACE OF FRENCH ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives in French are not always placed before the noun 
as in English. 

Some are always placed before, others always after. There 
are some adjectives, which, according to the nature or length 
of the noun with which they are joined, are indifferently plac- 
ed after or before ; some, in fine, have two different meanings, 
which are determined by their places before or after the noun. 
The learner is therefore advised to pay particular attention to 
the following rules. 

1. The following adjectives, whatever be their genders and 
numbers, are always placed before the noun: autre, other; 
beau, fine, handsome; bon } good; grand, large; gros, big; 
jeune, young \joli, pretty ; mauvais, bad; mediant, wicked ; 
meilleur, better ; mem,e, same ; moindre, less ; petit, small ; 
saint, holy ; tout, all ; vieux, old ; vrai, true. 

Long, long, is most generally placed before the noun. 
The numeral adjectives are also placed before trie nouns ; as, 
quatre, four ; premier, first. 

N. B." When the adjective in English is separate from the noun by a 
verb, the order of the phrase is not changed : as, 

The king was old : Le roi etait vieux, 

2. The adjectives that are placed after the nouns are those 
formed from the present or past participle : as, suivant, follow- 
ing; satis fait, satisfied. 

Those designating the impressions made upon our senses : 
viz., those expressing colour, taste, hearing, and touch ; and 
those relating to the weather : as, blanc, white; amer, bitter; 
sonore, sonorous ; rn.ou, soft ; chaud, warm. 

Those expressing form or shape: as, rond, round. 

Those expressing the name of a nation: as, Anglais, Eng- 
lish. 

Those which are also substantives : viz., used indifferently 
with or without a noun : as, aveugle, blind. 

Those ending in at • as, general, general. 

An explanation relative to these adjectives, and to those which have 
two meanings according to their position before or after the noun, will 
be found in the second part. 

What adjectives are always placed before the noun ? — How is the phrase con- 
structed in French when a 7erb comes between the noun and the adjective? — 
Where would you place the adjective tremklant, trembling? — Why ? — Celebre, ce- 
lebrated ?— Why ?— Rouge, red ?— Why ?—Fade, tasteless ?— Why 1—Dvr, hard ?— 
Why 1—Froid, cold ?— Why 1—Pointu, pointed ?~Why 1-Espagnol, Spanish '—Why 1 



72 ADJECTIVE. 

The adjectives droit, right ; gauche, left ; neuf, new ; sec, 
dry, are likewise placed after the noun ; and also prochain, 
next, and dernier, last, when joined with the days of the week. 

As for all the other adjectives, the rule to be followed is, that 
the longer word of the two is always placed last, and if the 
words have the same number of syllables, the adjective must 
come after the substantive. 

Although poets or elegant writers may often, for different 
reasons, violate these rules, yet a stranger who observes them 
will be sure not be incorrect. 

Rule. The adjective which qualifies the pronoun vous, when 
applied to a si.igle person, remains singular : as, 

You are good Vous Stes bon. 

Remark. When an adjective is placed before a singular substan- 
tive, it is the first letter of the adjective, not of the noun, which deter- 
mines how the article is to be used. 






EXERCISE. 

The verb to be affirmatively. 
T am prudent. He is wicked. £fhe is learned. We shall be polite. 
They were sincere. Mary was diligent. John's sister is pretty. The 
emperor's soldiers were courageous. Let us be prudent. You have 
been lucky. The laws will be respected. You have several excellent 
recommendations. The doctor's houses are high aud well situated. 
When you have a handsome hat you are proud. James is a true Turk. 
We are equal now. Alice's little friend is wicked. You shall have 
the explanations of the banker's conduct in the following lines. He has 
a. strong voice. When will you have a black cravaf ? Have you no 
bitter almonds ? He was armed since he had a pointed stick. The 
queen was not satisfied because the landlord had not a square table. 
The old clerk will have a new coat, next Sunday. John's English 
grammar and French dictionary have been the ornaments of the mi- 
nister's library. You are gay to-day, but perhaps you will be sorrow- 
ful next Friday. The weather was very warm last Monday. They 
will be here next Saturday. Peter's abominable conduct was the sub- 
ject ofthe conversation last Wednesday. They will be well next Tues- 
day or Thursday. I was at the general assembly. 

SECTION II. 

EXCEPTIONS TO THE FORMATION OP THE FEMININE OF FRENCH 
ADJECTIVES. 

There are exceptions to the rule which treats of the for- 
mation of the feminine of French adjectives. They are as 
follows : 

? Principal, principal ?— Why ?— Wliat is said of neuf, new 1— Prochain, next?— 
Dernier, last ?— What is said about the place of adjectives in general?— In what 
number do you use an adjective that qualifies the pronoun, vous, you, applied to 
one person ? 



ADJECTIVE. 73 

1* Adjectives ending in e mute, do not require a second e in 
the feminine, but remain the same as in the masculine. 
Ex. mas. habile fern, habile skUfid 

" riche " riche rich 

2. Adjectives ending in el, et, eil, ien, and on, double their 
last consonants and take e mute. 

Ex. cruel cruelle cruel pareil pareille equal 

ancien ancienne ancient bon bonne good 

muet muette dumb 

N. B. The consonant is doubled in the first three of these terminations, in 
order to make the first e grave, as two mute e's cannot come in succession. A 
grave accent on that e would have had the same effect, and is U3ed in some ad- 
jectives ending in et, as below. In the termination eil, the I, followed by e mute, 
would have lost its liquid sound, which is preserved to it by doubling the I, (see 
that letter). As for the second n added to on, it was formerly considered as hav- 
ing the power of shortening the o, but it is now entirely useless., although still 
preserved* paxticularly as there are many words ending in one, in which o is 
called short. 

Some adjectives ending et, form their feminine by simply, 
taking e mute \ but then a grave accent is placed over the e that 
precedes the t. These are : 

complet complete complete 

concret concrete concrete 

discret discrete discrete 

indiscret indiscrete indiscrete 

inquiet inquiete restless 

incomplet incomplete incomplete 

pret prete ready 

secret secrete secret 

3. Adjectives ending in er, simply take e mute ; but in order 
to prevent two mute e's from coming in succession, at the end 
of a word, a grave accent is placed over the e which pre- 
cedes the r ; as, 

singulier singuliere singular 

4. The following adjectives have their last consonant doubled 
and e mute added for the feminine. 



bas 


basse 


loxo 


sot 


sotte 


foolish 


gras 


grasse 


fat 


mil 


nulle 


void 


las 


lasse 


tired 


gentil 


gentille 


gentle 


£pais 


epaisse 


thick 


paysan 


paysanne 


peasant 


expres 


expresse 


express 


profes 


professe 


professed 


gros 


grosse 


big 









What are the adjectives that do not add a second e mute in their feminine? — 
How do you form the feminine of adiectives ending in el? — Those ending in ett 
—eil?—ien?—on?—Wh<it are the adjectives ending in etthat do not take a double 
t and e mute in the feminine 1— How do they form their feminine ?— How are ad- 
jectives ending in er spelt in the feminine ?— What other adjectives double their 
last consonants ? 

7 



breve 


short 


active 


active 


neuve 


new 



74 ADJECTIVE. 

Adjectives ending in /, change this letter into v, and take e 
mute. 

Ex. bref 
actif 
neuf 

N. B. Neuf is said of things that have been used, either not at 
all or very little. It cannot be applied to persons. 

Adjectives ending in x, change this letter into s, and take e 
mute. 

honteux honteuse ashamed 

jaloux jalouse jealous 

But, doux makes douce sweet 

faux fausse false 

prefix prefixe prefixed 

roux rousse reddish 

N. B. These exceptions being numerous have been divided into two parts, on 
the first of which is given the following 

EXERCISE. 

The verb to be, negatively. 

The mother is amiable, and the daughter is sensible. Peter's cravat 
is equal to Mary's handkerchief. Be not cruel, madam. She is good 
and credulous. Rome is an ancient city. She used to be a good mu- 
sician. William's cousin is the minister of a Presbyterian church. 
The wounds were not mortal. The baker's house is very low, and the 
walls are very thick. She will not be tired. Mary is a gentle little 
girl. She will not be discreet. Why ? She will not be indiscreet, for 
she is dumb. You are not ready, madam. The army was not com- 
plete. He has a singular habit. You have not a particular method. 
The hens are not fat. The thief was in the kitchen, under the big 
table. She was jealous, but very active and industrious. We have 
some sweet beets. The flowers are red, and the fruit has a reddish 
colour. The little girl will have a new gown to-morrow. The conclu- 
sion was not natural. You have not been studious, miss. 

SECTION III. 

The feminine of adjectives ending in eur requires particu- 
lar attention. 

Some of these words were formed from the present parti- 
ciple of verbs, by changing ant into eur. Thus, from parl-ant, 
talking, was formed parl-eur, talker, or talkative, &c. In all 
adjectives of this class, the r is changed into s, and an emute 



How do you form the feminine of adjectives ending in /?— Of those ending in 
xl— What are the exceptions ?— What is said of the adjective neuf, new ?— How 
do you form the feminine of the adjectives ending in eur, which are formed from 
present participles by simply substituting eur for antl / 



ADJECTIVE. 



75 



added, to form their feminine. Thus, if you can ascertain 
that a word ending in eur, is formed from a present participle 
by simply substituting eur for ant, you can form its feminine 
as above. 

Ex. parleur (from parlant) parleuse talkative 

menteur (from mentant) menteuse lying 

The following are the only ones excepted ; 



enchanteur 


enchanteresse 


enchanting 


devineur 


devineresse 


diviner 


pScheur 


p£chevesse 


sinner 


vengeur 


vengeresse 


avenging 


ex£cuteur 


ex£cutrice 


executor — trix 


inventeur 


in ven trice 


inventor — tress 


inspecteur 


inspectrice 


inspector 


persecuteur 


pers£cutrice 


persecutor 


gouverneur 


gouvernante 


governor — ness 


chasseur 


chasseresse 


hunter, in poetry. 


bailleur 


baiileresse 


lessor ) 


demandeur 


demanderesse 


plaintiff > law terms. 


deTendeur 


deTenderesse 


defendant } 


N. B. Chasseuse and demandeuse are used in ordinary style. 


But whatever 


be the derivation of a word ending in eur; 


if it differ from a 


present participle more than by its three 


last letters, the feminine will be formed by changing eur into 


rice; as, 






admirateur 


admiratrice 


admirer 


protecteur 


protectrice 


protector — tress 


ambassadeur 


ambassadrice 


ambassador —dress 


serviteur, makes 


servante 


servant 


The following form their feminine regularly by simply 


adding e mute. 






majeur 


majeure 


major, {of age.) 


mineur 


mineure 


minor, (under age.) 


meilleur 


meilieure 


better 


anterieur 


anterieure 


anterior 


exterieur 


exterieure 


exterior 


superieur 


superieure 


superior 



And all others ending in erieur. 

Auteur, author ; amateur, amateur ; predicateur, preacher; 
and others ending in eur, generally applied to men, as they 
express some profession seldom embraced by women, do not 
change their termination when they are used iri the feminine. 

une fcmme auteur a female author 

What are the exceptions ?— How is the feminine of other adjectives in eur 
formed ?— What are those ending in eur which merely take e mute ?— What are 
those that have no feminine ? 



76 



ADJECTIVE. 



The five following adjectives require particular attention. 



fern, sin. 
belle 
folle 
molle 
nouvelle 



mas. sin. 
beau, bel 
fou, fol 
mou, mol 
nouveau, nouvel 

N. B. Nouveau is applied to persons and things. 



mas. plu. 
beaux 
fous 
mous 
nouveaux 



fern. plu. 
belles fine 
folles crazy 

molles soft 
nouvelles new 

Before the noun it 
signifies, different from what we had; after the noun it signifies, lately 
come out. 

vieux, vieil vieille vieux vieilles old 

Bel, nouvel, fol, mol, vieil, must be used only before words 
the masculine singular, beginning with a vowel or h mute. 
Beau, nouveau, fou, mou, vieux, are used in all other cases 
in the masculine singular. Yet vieux can be used in the 
masculine singular before a vowel or h mute. 

The following are quite irregular : 






blanc 


blanche 


white 


long < 


longue 


long 


franc 


franche 


frank 


favori 


favorite 


favourite 


sec 


seche 


dry 


jumeau 


jumelle 


twin 


frais 


fraiclie 


fresh ' 


b£nin 


be*nigne 


benign 


public 


publique 


public 


malin 


maligne 


malignant 


caduc 


caduque 


decrepit 


tiers 


tierce 


third 


turc 


turque 


turkish 


tors 


torse 


twisted 


grec 


grecque 


greek 


traitre 


traitresse 


traitor-tress 



* 



Adjectives ending in gu, have in the feminine a diaeresis 
over the mute e added to the masculine, in order that the 
may not be taken for silent ; as, 

contigu contigue contiguous 

The adjectives chdtain, chesnut-colonr ; dispos, nimble ;fat, 
fop ; have no feminine. Blette, half rotten, has no masculine. 

N. B. Something will be said in the second part, concerning some peculiarity 
of several adjectives. 

EXERCISE. 

The verb to be, interrogatively. 

Is she talkative ? The promise was deceitful. Armide was an en- 
chanting beauty. She is the executrix of the queen's will. The little 
girl is not of age. She was inferior to the general's wife, but superior 
to the captain's mother. The actress is an excellent songstress. The 
empress is the protectress of the ministers. Ceres was the in ven tress 
of a useful art. She is the plaintiff, but she has no right. Are you, 

What is to be remarked with regard to beau, fine 1—fou, crazy?— wow, soft'— 
nouveau, new ?— vieux, old ?— What are those which are entirely irregular ?— 
What is the peculiarity of adjectives ending in gul 



ADJECTIVE. 77 

Madam, the admirer of the King's governess, because she is an au- 
thoress ? The old servant is an industrious woman. Where have you 
been ? Is she crazy ? The pens are soft and the ink is thick. He has 
on a table a handsome bird in an old cage. The Doctor's new friend 
is an old Englishman. Be frank, madam. Mary and Jenny are twins. 
A Turkish frigate and a Grecian fleet were in the same harbour. The 
news contained in the letter, was not public yesterday. The water is 
quite fresh. The war will be long and expensive. She had a malig- 
nant fever. The French tongue is very useful. The white gown is 
not dry yet. The favourite Sultana is a traitress ; and the Turkish 
justice will be severe. He had an acute pain for a moment. 

SECTION IV. 

EXCEPTIONS TO THE FORMATION OF THE PLURAL OF FRENCH 
ADJECTIVES. 

As M r a3 said before, the plural masculine of adjectives is 
formed like that of substantives, and the plural of the feminine 
is formed from the feminine singular by adding s. 

Yet bleu, blue, makes bleus ; tout, all, makes tous. 

Adjectives ending in al, form their plural masculine, by 
changing al into aux, but there are many exceptions to that 
rule. 

1st. Some adjectives in al have no plural masculine, for 
this reason, that they are by their nature, never used with 
masculine nouns. These, cannot, of course, present any diffi- 
culty; such as diametral, diametral; mental, mental; vocal, 
vocal, &c. 

2d. Some form their plurals regularly by the addition of 
an s. These are, fatal, fatal; final, final ; frugal, frugal; 
glacial, glacial; initial, initial; nasal, nasal; naval, naval; 
pascal, paschal ; theatral, theatral. 

3d. Others, in fine, have no masculine plural laid down by 
grammarians, although they might be used with the mascu- 
line plural nouns. This singularity is owing to the rare neces- 
sity of using these words, which has deprived grammarians 
iand lexicographers of examples taken from good authors. 
They must never, therefore, be connected with masculine plu- 
ral nouns. The most important are, adverbial, adverbial; 
amical, friendly ; central, central ; collegial, collegial ; col- 
lossal, collossal; decimal, decimal; filial, filial; immemorial, 
immemorial ; instrumental, instrumental ; jovial, jovial ; 
marital, marital ; medical, medical ; musical, musical ; pas- 
toral, pastoral ; penal, penal ; proverbial, proverbial ; social, 
social ; total, total. 
. ! 

What is the plural of bleu and tout 1— What is to be remarked of adjectives 
mding in all — What are those which have no plural masculine? — What are 
hose which form their masculine plural in als ? 

7* 



78 ADJECTIVE. 

N. B. k]\ other adjectives ending in al which have not been placed 
among these last, and which are generally used in conversation, form 
their plurals according to the rule, by changing al into aux. 

EXERCISE* 

The verb to be interro-negatively. 

The ribbons are blue, but the hat is green. Are they not all ec[ual? 
The general principles of a science are indispensable. The opinion of 
the deputies of the Southern States had some influence upon the mem- 
bers of the Senate. The principal articles have been the subject of a 
warm discussion. Shall we not have an explanation of the ordinal 
numbers? yes; after the lesson upon the cardinal numbers. The de- 
claration of the Jesuits was accompanied by a mental restriction. The 
oriental monarchs are all Mahometans. We had the special orders of 
the king, Ney was the commander of the rear-guard during the fatal 
days of the return from Moscow. The nasal sounds are difficult. 
Have they not the relations of the naval exploits of Jean-Bart ? You 
have a list of all the adverbial expressions at the end of the grammar- 
The four cardinal points are East, West, North, and South. 

SECTION V. 

OF THE POSSESSIVE, DEMONSTRATIVE, AND INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES* 

OF THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE. 

Possessive adjectives are used to mark the possession of things or 
persons j they are 



A.SC. SING. 


FEM. SING. 


PLURAL FOR BOTH. 


mon 


ma 


mes my 


ton 

son 


ta 

sa 


tes thy 

ses his, her, its or one's 


notre 




nos our 


votre 
leur 




vos your 
leurs their 



Rule. 1. — These adjectives in French, agree in gender and 
number with the object possessed, and not with the possessor, 
as in English ; as, 

My father, mon pere ; his wife, safemme. 

Observation. — Although possessive adjectives must agree 
in gender and number with the substantives which they pre- 
cede, yet, ma, ta, sa, are not used before feminine substantives 
or adjectives which begin with a vowel or h mute, in order to 
avoid the meeting of two vowels, where no elision can take 
place. The adjectives, mon, ton, son, are used instead of 
them ; as, 

What are the possessive adjectives ?— With what do they agree in French?— 
How do you prevent the meeting of the two vowels when you have to express 
my, thy, his or her in the feminine before a word lhat begins with a vowel or h 
mute? 



ADJECTIVE. 79 

His wife, son gpouse ; my breath, mon haleine ; thy interesting his- 
tory, ton interessante histoire. 

Rule 2. — The possessive adjective must be placed before 
every substantive to which it relates in a sentence, and must 
agree with it in gender and number. If that adjective be pre- 
ceded by a preposition, that preposition must be repeated if it 
is a monosyllable ; as, 

To my father and mother, a mon pere et a ma mere. 

EXERCISE. 

The verb parler to speak. 

My father and your brother were together. Your father will speak 
to your uncle of your improper behaviour. His wife will speak to her 
brother and sister, and perhaps they will be satisfied. My hat, coat, 
boots, and waistcoat, are on my chair; but my cravat, breast-pin, 
watch, and key, are not here. I shall have a new dress to-morrow. 
His house, garden, and farm are in a good situation ; but his rooms 
are dark, because his trees are too high. Your cousin is my teacher. 
Our carriage and horses are at your service. I was speaking yester- 
day to }£our friends and their servant. They will be here to-morrow, 
with their children and their master. I am speaking of thy friendship. 
My friend John was here, with his amiable sister and her friend, Miss 
Clara. Thy boldness and intrepidity had his approbation, and his in- 
tention is good. Her hatred was the cause of her horrible vengeance* 
He was jealous of his reputation and honour. Their parents will t>e 
ashamed of their actions. 

N. B. The learner must be taught how to write and use a verb like 
Parler. 

OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES. 

Demonstrative adjectives are those which distinguish in a 
precise manner the persons or things to which they are ap- 
plied ; they are, 

ii*- • v ( ce (before a consonant or h aspirated,) } this 
m °* ( cet (before a vowel or h mute,) > or 

Fern. sing. cette ) that 

M. and f. pi. ces these or those. 

Rule 1. — Demonstrative adjectives agree in gender and 
\ number with the substantives to which they are prefixed. 
Rule 2. — They must be repeated before every noun to 
which they refer in the sentence, and agree with it in gender 
and number. 



How do you use the possessive adjectives with several substantives in suc- 
cession ? — What are the demonstrative adjectives? — With what do they agree! 
— How are they used with several successive substantives ? 



80 ADJECTIVE. 

Remark.— The Subjunctive mood will not be found in the exercises 
Until the explanations on that mood are given. 

EXERCISE. 

The learner must be able to use any regular verb of the first 
conjugation affirmatively in any of its moods, tenses, and persons. 

That young man is my cousin, and that lady is my sister. That 
child is their brother. We will eat that excellent pie. Sing that pret- 
ty song. Those men work ; and yet you are not satisfied. No, be- 
cause they neglect their work. That happy mortal lives in a real para- 
dise. This intrepid warrior stopped the march of that hero. This 
shepherdess lives in that hamlet. I will examine these bills because 
the addition is not correct. You flatter these persons. I would live 
in that house. We should not have those palaces. These apples 
are the product of those trees. That general commanded these troops, 
and this colonel had those soldiers. Grant that favour to this man. 
Oblige that poor woman, and she will preserve the remembrance of 
your benefit for ever. 

of the adjective quel, quelle, what, which. 
This adjective is called pronominal by some, and indefinite 
by others. It might be called absolute, as it has no antece- 
dent. It is used in affirmative, interrogative, and exclamatory 
sentences. 

Rule.— It must agree in gender and number with the sub- 
stantives to which it relates ; as follows :— 
quel masc. sing. \ 

quelle fern, sins;, f , . ,. , 
i f > what, which. 

quels mas. plur. ( > r'«W?r 

quelles fern. plur. J 

Remark. — Although this adjective is -generally followed 
by a substantive, yet it may be separated from its substantive 
by the verb to be ; as, What is that woman ? quelle est cette 
femme ? 

EXERCISE. 

The learner must know how to use a regular verb of the first conju- 
gation, interrogatively, in any of its moods, tenses, and persons. 

What man would refuse his assistance to a poor child? What 
goodness ! what delicacy in his actions ! What books are you examin- 
ing? Are you preparing your lessons now? What dictionary do you 
wish to have? What is that noise? What boots do you mend ? What 
lesson sha'l we have for to-morrow? Which verb did we recite yester- 
day? Which exercise will you give to our class for next Monday? 
What are those boys? In which village do you live? Which tenses 
shall I recite ? For which ladies are you bringing those flowers ? On 
which table did you find my gloves? What is that tower? What are 
those trees? 




With what does the adjective quel agree ?— Does it agree with the noun from 
which it is separated by the verb etre, to be ? 



NUMBERS. 



81 



SECTION VI. 

OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

ri P n?l b ,. e 7h are divided int0 several elates. It will be sufB- 
Kfi&ffT t0 ta aCqUainted with the — "nd 

nultrTafolrroSr th ° Se Whkh me ^expre S8 a 



CARDINAL NUMBERS. 

PRONUNCIATION. 



un, m. 



une, /. 

deux 

trois 

quatre 

cinq 

six 
7 sept 

huit 

neuf 

dix 

onze 

douze 

treize 

quatorze 

quinze 

seize 

dix-sept 

dix-huit 

dix-neuf 

vingt 

vingt-et-un 

vingt-et-une 

vingt-deux 

vingt- trois, 

&c. &c. 
trente 
trente-et-un, 

or une, &c. 



8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 

21 

22 
23 

30 
31 



At the end of a 
sentence. 



un 

u-ne 

deu 

troi 

qua-tre 

cink 

sis 

set 

huit (h aspirated) 

neuf 

dis 

onze* 

douze 

treize 

quatorze 

quinze 

seize 

dix-set 

diz-huit 

diz-neuf 

vin 

vint-e-un 

vint-g-une 

vint'deu 

vint'troi 



Before a consonant, 
or h aspirated. 



un 

u-ne 

deu 

troi 

qua-tre 

cin 

si 

hui 

neu 

di 

onze 

douze 

treize 

quatorze 

quinze 

seize 

diz-se 

diz-hui 

diz-neu 

vin 

vint-g-un 

vint-e-une 

vint'deu 

vint'troi 



Before a vowel, or 
an h mute. 



trente 
trent'£-un 



trente 
trent'e'-un 



un n' 

u-n* 

deuz 

troiz 

qua-tr' 

cink 

siz 

set 

huit 

neuv 

diz 

onz' 

douz* 

treiz' 

quatorz' 

quinz* 

seiz' 

diz-set 

diz-huit 

diz-neuv 

vint 

vint-£-un-n* 

vint-e-u-n' 

vint'deuz 

vint'troiz 

trent' 
trent'6-un n' 



*c. y aspirated; for we say, le onze, du o.ize, 



82 



NUMBERS. 



PRONUNCTATION. 



32 

40 
50 
60 



70 



71 

72 

73 

74 



80 

81 
82 

90 

91 
100 



trente-deux, 

&c. &c. 
quarante 
cinquante 
soixante 
f soixante-et- 

1 di *> 

(formerly 

^ septante) 

K soixante-et- 

( onze 

( soixante- 

( douze 

treize 

quatorze 

&c. &c» 

' quatre- 

vingt, or 

vingts,* 

(formerly 

octante) 

quatre- 

vingt-un or 

une 

quatre- 

vingt- 

deux, &c. 

f quatre- 

J vingt-dix, 

j (formerly 

(^ nonante) 

C quatre- 

/ vingt-onze 

( &c. up to 

cent 



10l)cent-un or une cen-un 



At the end of a 
sentence. 



trente-deu 

quarante 
cinquante 
soissante 
soissant-6-dis 



soissant-£- 

onze 
soissante- 

douze, 

treize, 

quatorze, 

&c. 
quatre-vin 



( quatre- 
( vin-un 

( quatre- 
( vin-deu 

( quatre- 
( vin-dis 

( quatre- 
( vin-onze 

C cen (t al- 
< ways si- 
( lent) 



Before a con- 
sonant or h 
aspirated. 



trente-deu 

quarante 
cinquante 
soissante 
soissant-e-di 



soissant-£- 

onze 
soissante- 

douze, 

treize, 

quatorze, 

&c. 
quatre-vin 



( quatre- 
\ vin-un 

( quatre- 
( vin-deu 

( quatre- 
( vin-di 



i quatre- 
vin-onze 



Before a vowel 
or an h mute. 



trente-deuz 

quarant' 
cinquant' 
soissant' 
soissant-£-diz 



soissant-£- 

onz' 
soissante- 
douz' 
treiz 7 
quatorz' 
&c. 
quatre-vin 
when vingt, 
and quatre- 
vinz when 
vingts 

Squatre- 
vin-un n' 

( quatre- 
( vin-deuz 



( quatre- 
( vin-diz 



quatre- 
vin-onz 7 

cent, before 
a substan- 
tive, and 
cen before 
another 
c number, as 
cen-un n' 



What are the cardinal numbers ?— What must be observed with regard to 
onze, eleven ?— What is the French for seventy?— For eighty ?— For ninety, &c. 



* As explained hereafter. 



NUMBERS. 



83 



PRONUNCIATION. 



200 



, deux cent, 
and deux 
, cents, &c.^ 



deu-cen 



lOOOmille 
lOOllmille-et-un 

2000 deux mille 
10,000 dix mille 
100,000 cent mille 
1,000,000 un million 
2,000,000 deux millions 



At the end of the 
period or sen- 
tence. 



mile 

mile-un 

deu-mile 

di-mile 

cen-mile 

iun milion 

deu milion 



Before a con- 
sonant or h 
aspirated. 



Before a vowel 
or h mute. 



deu-cen 



mile 
mile-un 
deu-mile 
di mile 
en-mile 
un milion 
Ideu milion 



{ deu cen 
I when cent, 
{ and deu- 
J cenz when 
[ cents 

mil' 

mil-e-un n* 

deu mil' 

di-mil' 

cen-miP 

un milion 

'deu milion 



Rule 1. The English conjunction and is never expressed 
m French with the above numbers, except in vingt-et-un 
trente-eUin^nd before un in every tenth number up to seventy! 
Ex. : five hundred and thirty, cinq cent trente. 

Rule 2. Un is not annexed to mille or cent ; as we say 
cent and mille, for a hundred, a thousand, and not un cent, 
wi mille. ' 

Rule 3. Cent in the plural, and vingt in quatre-vingt 
take an s, except when they are followed by another num- 
ber connected with them ; as, deux cents hommes ; and deux 
cent cinquante hommes, quatre-vingts beaux arbres, and 
quatre-vingt-deux arbres. 

Six vingts is sometimes used for a hundred and twenty. 

N. B. Cent never takes the 5 in dates, and also in arithme- 
tic, when numbers are mentioned without any reference to 
substantives. 

Ex. : The year 1700, Van mil sept cent. 

Rule 4. #is never added to mille. 

Ex.: deux mille, trois mille. 
When mentioning the years of the Christian aara, we curtail 
this word into mil ; as, mil huit cent vingt-meuf. Some 
restrict that practice to the year in which we live. 



w£TL hat ins ^ anc ^ d ° Z™ translate into French the English conjunction and 
with the numbers ?-What is a hundred in French 1-One thausa* ™-V%™d%a 



* As explained hereafter. 



84 NUMBERS. 

It is good French to say, onze cent, douze cent, $c, as far 
as dix neuf cent ; but after that, the words deux mille must 
be used to express two thousand, &c. Dix cent cannot be 
substituted for mille. 

Million is followed by the preposition de, of, as in English. 
It takes s in the plural. 

The numbers cannot be reversed. Five-and-twenty must 
be translated into French by vingt-cinq, twenty -five. 

EXERCISE. 

The learner must know how to use a negative verb of the first 
conjugation throughout all its moods, tenses, and persons. 

My master had twenty dollars, seven guineas, forty-five shillings, 
and thirty-one cents. I paid yesterday two hundred francs to my door- 
keeper, six hundred and fifty francs to my coachman, three hundred 
and eighty dollars to my landlord, and eighty-five cents to the post- 
office. In the month of January of the year one thousand eight hun- 
dred and twenty-nine, I spent three thousand dollars, and perhaps three 
thousand and five hund -ed. I gave nine hundred and seventy-five dollars 
to the mason, and about eight hundred to the carpenter. He left ten 
millions of dollars. I did not count seventeen hundred volumes in the 
general's library. You had a thousand excuses, and you remained 
there like an automaton : you did not speak in your own favour. I 
would have killed a hundred birds yesterday, but I had no powder. 
That merchant has five-and-twenty clerks in his store. Add the fol- 
lowing numbers together : eighty-six, ninety-nine, seventy-five, one 
hundred and eighty, twenty-one, seventeen, two thousand and eighty- 
six. 

OF THE ORDINAL NUMBERS. 

The ordinal numbers are those which express the order or 
rank by numbers ; ^, first, second, third, $c. 

ORDINAL NUMBERS. 

premier masc. ) . and unieme, of both genders, 



First < P rem ^ re fi m - > which is only used when in con- 

1 ] premiers masc. ) , nection with another number. 
[ premieres fern. 5 P * 

Remark. Premier is only made use of for the very first of a series, 
and unieme when after another number ; then twenty-first, thirty-first, 
fyc, are translated by vingt-et-unieme, trente-et-unieme, fyc. 

When does milion take an 5 ?— Translate twelve hundred!— Twenty-four hundred! 
— Eight-and-twcnt y ?— What are the ordinal numbers?— What is first! — Second!-- 
When is unieme used? 






NUMBERS. 85 



second masc. 1 ■ and deuxieme, of both genders 

1 sing. 

plur. 



i 



Second < secon( ^ e f em - 3 to " (pronounce deuzieme) 
) seconds masc, * 



( secondes /em. 

N. B. Remember that the c in second, is pronounced like g. 
Remark. Second is only used for the second of a series. 
Deuxieme is also used in that instance, but is the only one 
that can succeed another number, with which it is connected. 
Thus, thirty -second, and others must be translated by trente- 
deuxieme, $c. 

third, troisieme : seventh, septieme ; 

fourth, quatrieme ; eighth, huitieme ; 

fifth, cinquieme; ninth, neuvieme ; 

sixth, sixieme; tenth, dixieme. 

It will be very easy now to proceed with the ordinal num- 
bers, as the rest are formed from the cardinal by adding time ; 
and if the cardinal number ends in e mute, that e is cut off 
and time added to the preceding consonant. 

Fifth and ninth always make cinquieme and neuvieme, as 
above. 

Remark. All the ordinal numbers except premier and se- 
cond, are of both genders, and take an 5 in the plural. 

They are pronounced as the cardinals are before a vowel, 
with the addition of time. 

N. B. Onzieme as well as onze is to be considered as if beginning with 
h aspirated. 

Rule. The ordinal numbers must be placed before the sub- 
stantive, except when accompanying a noun used to quote a 
chapter, article, or page of a book. 

Ex. The thirtieth volume ; le trentieme volume, 

Livre troisieme, book the third ; chapitre dixieme, &c. 

EXERCISE. 

The learner must know how to use a verb of the first conjugation 
interro-negatively. 

My young sister is always the first, and your brothers are often the 
last. I lent to your friend the third volume of Voltaire's works, twen- 
ty-first edition, and the second volume of Moliere's Comedies, thirty- 
second edition. The colonel did not command the thirteenth regiment 
of infantry, but his brother, the lieutenant, was at the head of the 
sixteenth company. That lady sang the second part, and I sang the 
first. Did you not find the ninth volume of Rousseau's works ? Did 
we not celebrate yesterday the fifty-second anniversary of the king's 



When deuxieme 1 — How are the ordinal numbers formed 1 — How is fifth spelt 
in French? — How is nine?— How can you make them agree in gender with 
nouns i — How do you form their pluraU — How are they pronounced ?— Where 
are they placed ? 

8 



86 PRONOUNS. 

coronation? Did I not find that sentence in the fifth volume, chapter 
third? Having arranged my thirty men in three ranks; I gave the 
lances to the first, the pistols to the second, and the muskets to the third. 



CHAPTER IV. 

OF THE PRONOUNS. 

REMARKS INTRODUCTORY TO THE PRONOUNS AND VERBS. 

Before we proceed to consider those important parts of speech, viz.,. 
pronouns and verovt is necessary that a subject, intimately connected 
with them, should be explained. 

OF THE NOMINATIVE AND OBJECTIVE. 

The nominative or subject of a verb, is the person or thing that is f 
or does, for the verb being a word that signifies to be, or to do, must re- 
fer to a person or thing which is or does, and that person or thing we 
call nominative or subject. 

It can be discovered by prefixing to the verb the interrogative pro- 
noun who, for persons, and what, for things. Ex. : I sing; Peter talks ; 
Iron is useful ; Who sings? Who talks? What is useful? I, Peter, 
and Iron, are the successive answers to these questions ; and conse- 
quently, each one of these words is nominative to the verb with which 
it is connected in these sentences. 

The objective is that substantive which receives a qualification by 
the verb ; since the objective to a verb is always qualified by the past 
participle of that verb. 

In the phrase, the master will reward John. The master will not be 
qualified by the verb, but John will, because he will be rewarded. All 
we know about John is that he wili be reivarded. The objectives of 
all verbsmay be discovered by analogy with the preceding phrase, viz.: 
by asking, What is the person or thing seen, blamed, sold, fyc. 

There are two objectives in French, viz. : the direct and indirect. 
The direct objective is the one above explained ; the indirect is the ob- 
jective to a preposition which relates to a verb, and might tye altogether 
dispensed with, if it were not that some French pronouns are equiva- 
lent both to the English preposition to and to a personal pronoun, 
which makes a distinction indispensable. But in this instance only, 
the indirect objective will be preserved and defined, as follows : The in- 
direct objective to a verb is that whichis connected to it by the preposition to. 

N. B. The learner is particularly cautioned to consider all nouns or 
pronouns governed by another preposition as objectives to that prepo- 
sition and not to the verb. 



mat is the nominative of a verb ?— How can it be discovered?— What is the 
objective ?-How many objectives do the French distinguish ?- What is the di- 
ffect objective ?— What is the indirect ?— How can the direct objective be found % 



PRONOUNS. 87 

SECTION I. 

PRONOUNS. 

A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to prevent the 
4oo frequent repetition of the same word. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Personal pronouns are those which most grammarians de- 
fine as occupying the place of persons ; but in French, those of 
the third person often stand for things. 

Tnese pronouns are either nominatives or objectives to the 
verbs. When nominative, they are, je, tu, il, elle, with their 
plurals, nous, vous, Us, elles, the same which are used in con- 
jugating the verbs. 

In French, as in English, personal pronouns are classed in 
three persons. The first is the person who speaks ; the se- 
cond, the person spoken to ; and the third, the person or thing 
spoken of. Thus : 

SING. PLURAL. 

Je or j' I, nous we, are pronouns of the first person. 

tu thou, vous yGii, second person 

il he, ils they, m. ) ^ . , 

elle she, elles they f. \ third person. 

N. B. All substantives placed before a verb, are of the third 
person. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS NOMINATIVES TO THE VERBS. 

When the personal pronouns are nominatives to the verb, it 
is very easy to use them. The scholar has only to recal to his 
memory the manner in which they are joined to the verbs; 
either affirmatively ; as, je parte, tu paries, il parte, or inter- 
rogatively , as, parle-je ? parles-tu ? parle-t-il ? or negative- 
ly; as, je ne pafle pas ; or interro-negatively ; as, ne parU-je 
pas ? This is the only way of placing the pronouns when no- 
minatives. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS WHEN OBJECTIVES TO THE VERBS. 

Objective pronouns are used as in the following list, 

ENGLISH. FRENCH. 

Me and to me, me before the verb, and moi after, 

toi 



both before and after the verb. 



thee and to thee 


te 


him 


le 


her 


la 


to him and to her 


lui 


us and to us 


nous 


you and to you 


vous 


them 


Its 


to them 


lew 



What are personal pronouns ? — How are they expressed when nominatives ?- 
How are they placed? — How are they expressed when objectives ? 



b© PRONOUNS. 

Remark. When me, te, le, and la, come before a verb be- 
ginning with a vowel or h mute, the final e and a are cut off, 
and an apostrophe is added. 

OF THE PLACE OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS WHEN OBJECTIVES TO 
THE VERBS. 

By explaining that me and to me are expressed by me before the verb, 
and moi after, the above list gives to understand that these pronouns 
can be placed before or after the verb. But as their places are inva- 
riably fixed by a rule, the learner is desired to road it with attention. 

Rule. A personal pronoun which is the direct or indirect 
objective to a verb, must be placed immediately before it, 
and in compound tenses immediately before the auxi- 
liary; 

Except when the verb is used in the imperative mood, 
affirmatively^ in which case it is placed immediately after, 
and connected with it by a hyphen. 

But when the imperative is negative the pronoun comes, as 
usual, immediately before the verb. 

examples. 

I thank you ; Je vous remercie. 

He has blamed me ; II m'a blame. 

Let us speak to them ; Parlons-leur, 

Protect me ; Protegez-moi. 

Do not mark him ; JVe le marquez pas. 

With interrogative Verbs, 
Do you love her? Vaimez-vous ? 

Have they persuaded you? Vous ont-ils persuadi ? 

With negative Verbs, 

He did not amuse us. Jl ne nous amusa pas. 

You have not spoken to him. Vous ne lui avezpas parte. 

With interro-negative Verbs. 

Did he not lend a book to me ? W*e me preta-t-il pas un livre ? 
Have they not tormented him ? JVe Pont Us pas tourmente ? 

Remark 1. Sometimes the preposition to is not expressed 
in English, but is merely understood. This is not allowed in 
French, and the pronoun must be translated as if to were ex- 
pressed in English. 

Ex. : I will give him my watch. Je lui donnerai ma montre. 

What difference do you make between we and moil—te and toil — le and ?m*?~ 
la and lui? — les and Zet/r ?--How do you express to me, to thee, to us, to you?— 
Where do you place the personal pronouns when they are objectives to a verb * 
—Where when the verb is in the imperative affirmative ?— Where when the 
imperative is negative ?— Can the prepositions be omitted in French ? 




PRONOUNS. 89 

Remark 2. These rules will be observed with the verbs to 
speak and to be, as well as with other verbs : 

Ex. : I am obliged to you. Je vous suis oblige. 

Rule. Since we have no neuter gender in French, we need 
not nave a pronoun to represent it. Therefore the neuter 
pronoun it, when it is used to represent substantives, and they 
ana them, in the plural, are translated, according to the gender 
and nuisber of the substantives which they represent:, by the 
personal pronouns il, elle, Us, elles, when nominatives, and by 
le la, (mi when objectives to verbs. Thus, speaking of a pen, 
me r-irase, ll is not good, mend it; is trar. slated by, elle 
n est pas bonne, taillez-la. But this is not applicable to the. 
same pronouns when objectives to prepositions. 

N. B. All other difficulties relating to pronouns will be found in the 
second part. 

EXERCISE. 

The learner must have written a verb ending in cer. 

Do not play with those glasses • you will break them. He threaten- 
ed me when I spoke to hiin about my money. He cries when we 
pinch him. I have announced to him that you would arrive this even- 
TS u*aT~ ?— S0 !?* havd Protected me against my enemies, and I am 
indebted to them for my tranquillity. I love thee and I will show thee 
my sincerity My son was sick. I sent him to the country, where I 
sent him his books, because there he will study his lessons, and will re- 
cue them next Saturday. Forgive me and forget our misunderstanding 
Ihe king will not grant us that favour. Since my daughter is studious 
i will reward her, and will snow her my satisfaction. Give her ttfs 
ring, out leave her immediately, and do not explain to her the reason, 
why we send her that present. Let us help him in that unlucky accident 
and tet us lend mm two or three hundred dollars. We will obliire him' 
and show him that we are his friends I thank you, Sir. Do not 
thank me ior that little service, but listen to me for a moment. Whv 
did you place him in that school ? Have tbey given them anv money' '> 
iney will not give you any answer to-day, because you have not srL 
ken to them politely. Where is my watch? It £ m mZrti Lut> 
where did you carry it? I have not touched you. He fell into the gutter 
and spoiled his pantaloons. Did he not tear them? Have I not re. 
commended you to that merchant? 

SECTION II. 
OF THE FRENCH PRONOUNS qui AND que. 

Qui and que, who, whom, which, and that, are both inter- 



I°l5° n y ° U P J aCe * he P«>nouns with the verb etre. to be, and varler to speak ? 

8* 



90 PRONOUNS. 

rogative and relative pronouns. They are interrogative when 
used to ask questions, and then qui answers for persons, and 
que for things , as, 

Who is there ? Qui est la ? 

Whom did you meet ? Qui rencontrates-vous ? 

What do you propose ? Que proposez-vous ? 

They are relative when they relate to a preceding noun, and 
then qui is used for persons and things, when it is the nomina- 
tive of a verb, and que when objective; as, 

The person who spoke. La personne qui parla. 

The lady whom you admired. La dame que vous admirates. 

The books which I bought. Les livres que fachetai. 

N. B. Que but not qui, loses the e and takes an apostrophe 
before a vowel or h mute. 

EXERCISE. 

The learner must write a verb ending in get. 

Who has corrected your exercise ? What person did you meet, 
who borrowed your watch 1 Did you change that dollar w T hich I gave 
you yesterday. Yes, and we are eating the apples which we bought 
with that money. Whom will you reward, and whom do you judge 
worthy of the first premium ? We are correcting the faults which 
you marked in our exercises yesterday ? You encouraged our negligence 
by your indulgence. They used eat the rest of the dinner which we had 
left for the servants. Who will have the money which is yet in the 
bank ? 

N. B. The following chapter contains all the difficulties relating to 
verbs, but is not illustrated by any exercise, as the verbs are intended 
to be learned progressively, as directed at the head of each exercise. 
The learner must therefore pass directly to Chapter VI., where the 
next exercise is to be found. 



CHAPTER V. 

OF THE VERB. 

A verb is a word which signifies to be, or to do. 

Verbs must agree with their nominatives in number and 
person. 

There are various kinds of verbs , the nature of which will 
be explained in another part of this work. They are active, 
passive, neuter, pronominal, or impersonal Besides these, 
there are two auxiliary verbs, so called, because by their 

What docs the interrogative pronoun jt/z'stand for? — What does qui, when re 
lative, represent ?— What does que, when Interrogative, stand for W What doee 
it signify, when relative ?— What is a verb? 



AUXILIARIES. 



91 



help, the other verbs are conjugated. They are, avoir, to 
have, and etre, to be . 

All verbs may be used affirmatively, negatively, interroga- 
tively, and interro-negatively. 

They are divided into moods and tenses. 

The moods are, the infinitive, indicative, conditional, ino- 
perative, and subjunctive. 

The tenses are, the present, imperfect, preterit, and future, 
and their compounds. 

SECTION I. 

OF THE AUXILIARIES. 
CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARY VERB AVOVT, TO HAVE. 

INFINITIVE. 

SIMPLE TENSES. COMPOUND TENSES. 



PRESENT. 

avoir to have 

PRESENT. 

ayant having 

PAST. 

eu, wi.* eue,/.* had 



PAST. 

avoir eu to have had 

PARTICIPLES. 

COMPOUND. 

> ayant eu having had 

3 

INDICATIVE. 

PRETERIT INDEFINITE, OR COMPOUND OF 
THE PRESENT. 



j'ai (1) 

tuas (2) 
ila 
elle a 
nous avons 



I have 
thou hast 
he has 
she has 

we have 



vous avez (3) you have 
ils ont they m. have 

elles ont they f. have 



j'ai 
tu as 
ila 
elle a 

nous avons 
vous avez 
ils ont 
elles ont 



}ex 



I have 
thou hast 
he has 
she has 
we have 
you have 
they have 
they have 



\had 



What are the moods of a verb ?— What are the tenses ?— What is an auxiliary 
verb? — How are eu pronounced in the verb avoir 1 — What is said on the second 
person singular of French verbs ? 



* Eu are pronounced as the French letter v, throughout the verb. 

(1) Pronounced je. 

(2) The second person singular of the French verbs is very often used ; and 
not only in the same instances as in English, but also between persons of the 
same family, intimate friends, young children. Some people use it with their 
servants, &c. That person generally ends in silent s in all the tenses. 

(3) The second person plural is generally marked by ez, and the e is sounded 
acute : as, vous ave. It is used instead of the second person singular as in En- 
glish. 



92 



VERBS. 






SIMPLE TENSES. 



COMPOUND TENSES. 



IMPERFECT. 

j'avais (1) I had, or used 

to have 
tu avais thou hadst, or 

usedst to have 
ii or elle avait he or she had, 

or used to have 
we had, or used 

to have 
you had, or 

used to have 
ils or elies a- ) they had or 
vaieni (2) ) used to have 



PLUPERFECT, Or COMPOUND OF THE 
IMPERFECT. 



nous avions 



vous aviez 



j'avais 

tu avais 

il or elle 

avait 
nous avions 

vous aviez 

ils or elles 
avaient 



I had 
thou hadst 
he or she had 
we had 



' 



}had 



you 



had 



they had 




PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

j'eus J had 

tu eu3 thou hadst 

ii or elle eut he or she had 
nous eumes (3) we had 

vous edtes (3) you had 

ils or elles they had 
eurent 



j 7 eus 
tu eus 
il or elle eut 
nous eumes 
vous eutes 
ils or epes 
eurent 



j 



1 



PRETERIT ANTERIOR, or COMPOUND 
OF THE PRETERIT. 

I had 
thou hadst 
he or she had 
iv e had 
you had 
they had 



had 






N. B. See the explanation of the difference between these four tenses at th« 
end of this verb. 



FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 

j'aurai (4) I shall or will j'aurai 

have 
tu auras thou skalt or tu auras 

wilt have 
il or elle aura he or she shall il or elle aura 

or will have 
nous aurons we shall or will nous aurons 

have 
vousaurez you shall or will vous aurez 

have 
ils or elles they shall or ils or elles 
auront will have auront 



FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

I shall or 

will have 
thou shalt or 

wilt have 
he or she shall 

or will have 
we shall or 

ivill have 
you shall or 

will have 
they shall or 

will have 



(1) Formerly spelt favois, tu avois, il avoit, ih aooient. The oi or ai are pro- 
nounced as if spelt with a grave e zsj'ave, &c. 

byt w7ncVis e a!so r si P ent SOU ^^ ° f a verb > are alw ^ s sile ^ whe » Preceded. 

(3) (3) Whenever the first or second person of the plural ends in es y these two 
letters are silent : yet the *is carried to a vowel or h mute 

(4) M is, m that person, sounded like e, or a in rake 






VERBS. 



93 



CONDITIONAL. 

SIMPLE TENSES. COMPOUND TENSES. 



PAST, 



j' aurais 



PRESENT. 

(1) I should or 



tu aurais 



j'aurais 
would have 
thou shouldst or tu aurais 
wouldst have 



il or elle aurait he or she should il or elle aurait 
or would have 



nous aurions 



vous auriez 



we should or 
would have 

you should or 
would have 

they should or 
would have 



nous aurions 



vous auriez 



Or COMPOUND OP THE CON- 
DITIONAL. 

I should or 

would have 
thou shouldst 

or wouldst 

have 
he or she 

should or 

would have 
we should or 

would have 
you should or 

would have 
they should or 

would have 



eu 



>had 



lis or elles they should or ils or elles 

auraient would have auraient 

C Teusse eu, tu eusses eu, il eut eu, nous eussions eu, vous 
N. B. < eussiez eu, ils eussent eu, I should have had, &c, are also used 
( for the conditional past, but very seldom in conversation. 
IMPERATIVE. 
Aie (2) Have (thou) 

ayons let us have 

ayez have (ye or you) 

SUBJUNCTIVE.* 

PRESENT. PRETERIT, or COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT* 



que j'aie (2) That I may 

have 
quetuaies (3) that thou may st que tu aies 

have 
qu'il or qu'elle that he or she 
ait may have, or 

let him or her 

have 
que nous ayons that we may 

have 
que vous ayez that you may 

have 

qu'ils or qu'elles that they may qu'ils or qu 
aient have,or let elles aient 

them have 



que j'aie "\ 



qu'il or qu'elle 
ait 



que nous 

ayons 
que vous ayez 



That I may 

have 
that thou 

mayst have 
that he or she 

may have 



that we may 

have 
that you may 

have 
that they may 

have 



> had 



(1) Ai f formerly oi, throughout that tense, are sounded like e, or e in wreck. 

(2) (3) Ai is, in the imperative, and through the subjunctive moods, pro- 
nounced like e. Es in the second person singular, are silent, 

* Although the subjunctive has been represented by English words, the stu- 
dent will observe that this mood is only used in certain circumstances which 
will require a particular explanation : it will not therefore be used in any of th© 
exercises now, but the learner should, nevertheless, commit it to memory. 

What is to be observed of the subjunctive 1 



94 



VERBS. 



SIMPLE TENSES. 



COMPOUND TENSES. 



PLUPERFECT, OT COMPOUND 



zkt 



IMPERFECT. 

que j'eusse Tliai I mi c 

have 
que tu -cusses that thou 

mighist have 
qu'il or qu'elle that he or she 

eut might have 

que nous eus- that we might 

sions have 

que vous eus- that you might que vous eus- 

siez have siez 

qu'ilsorqu'elles thatihey might qu'iis or qu' 

eussent have elles eussent 



que j'eusse 
que tu eusses 

qu'il or qu'elle 

eiit 
que nous eus- 

sions 



:E IMPERFECT. 

That I might 

have 
that thou 

mighist have 
that he or she 

migld have I ^ 
that we might 

have 
that you 

might have 
that they 

might have 

OF THE FRENCH 



EXPLANATION OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOME 
PAST TENSES. 

The difference between the imperfect tense and the preterit is simply 
this: the imperfect signifies a thing that had commenced before the 
time at which it is mentioned, and was then still going on ; the preterit 
expresses that the thing commenced then. Thus, 

Tavais la fievre quand vous arrivates, I had a fever when you arrived ; 
signifies that I had a fever before you arrived, and that my fever was 
still going on ; while, 

feus lafitvre quand vous arrivates, 
signifies that I began to have a fever then. So that the former might 
be given as an apology for not receiving a person as friendly as usual, 
while the other could be taken for an insult. 

The imperfect signifies, besides, what is expressed by used to, or what 
is understood to be continually going on without reference to any par- 
ticular time. 

The preterit definite, or simple tense, cannot be used for what took 
place to-day, or at any time, a part of which has yet to elapse ; as, this 
week, this month, &c. when these words are in the sentence ; the prete- 
rit indefinite is then employed. 

The preterit indefinite or compound tense is used, besides, for on ac- 
tion newly finished ; or one perfected some time ago, but whose conse- 
quences extend to the present time. 

It must be used for all English past tenses, accompanied by the words 
always, never, thus far, as these words have the power of extending the 
action of the verb to the present moment. 

The difference between the pluperfect and preterit anterior is that the 
pluperfect expresses a thing that had taken place and had been entire- 
ly completed, at any time before a past action that is also mentioned; 
while the preterit anterior signifies that the thing had taken place im- 

What is the difference between the imperfect and preterit definite ?— What is 
the difference between the pluperfect and preterit anterior ?— What is the diffe- 
rence in sound between the first person singular of the future and that of $h$ 
conditional ? 



VERBS. 95 

mediately before another. For this reason the preterit anterior is most 
£snerall£ preceded by an adverb of time; as, 

J'avais eu la fievre alors, I had had the fever then ; 
And, Jlprts quHl tut eu la fievre il Jut prudent 
After he had had the fever he was prudent. 
^ N. B. Amir, as an auxiLiary, is used with all active transitive verbs 
simply called active m French, and with many intransitive, called neu- 
ter m French. Some of the latter take the verb etre, to be, as will be 
hereauer explained. 

Avoir is also an active verb, which implies possession. It 
is first used as an active in the exercises. 

THE VERB Avoir, NEGATIVELY. 

There is but one way of making French verbs negative. It 
is to place ne before the verb, and pas or point after. Pas 
or point must not be considered as a second negation but as 
words used for tiie purpose of strengthening the negation ne. 

Point expresses a stronger negation than pas. 

Ne loses the e before a vowel or h mute. 

In the present of the infinitive, both ne and pas or point are 
placed before the verb; as, not to have, ne pas avoir. 
| In compound tenses the auxiliary alone is made negative as 
is also practised in English ; then the word pas or point comes 
between the auxiliary and the past participle, exactly where not 
is placed in English. 

INFINITIVE. 

SIMPLE TENSES. COMPOUND TENSES. 

PRESENT. PAST> 

ne pas avoir. not to have n'avoir pas eu not to have had. 

PARTICIPLES. 

present. PAST# 

; n'ayant pas not having n'ayant pas eu not having had. 

N. B. The past participle cannot be used negatively except in com- 
pound tenses. J ^ 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 



Jen'aipas I have not jen'aipas ^ 

tu n'as pas thou hast not tu n'as pas 

H n'a pas he has not il n'a pas 

^elle n'a pas she has not elle n'a pas 

^nous n'avons pas we have not nous n'avons pas ^ eu 

•vous n'avez pas you have not vous n'avez oas 

lis n'ont pas > h iis n'ont pas 1 

: elles n'ont pas \^V^not ^ ^ ^ 



I have 

thou hast 

he has 

she has 

iv e have <* |" 

you have 

? they have 



$** 



» H SSJ"wtti e p g f 7e ln French? -What is the difference between 
pTaced Sole The^rb^ ^ *" ° T point ° CCUpy ? ~ Wh ™ are both ™™*P°> 



96 



VERBS. 



It is needless to carry on this verb any farther; it is conju- 
gated precisely like avoir, with the exception of having the 
negatives added. 

N. B. If the pupil be too young to be able to make out the rest ot 
the tenses, the teacher may give him the whole of the verb to write* 

THE VERB Avoir, INTERROGATIVELY. 

The verb Avoir, when interrogative, is used in the same 
manner as the English verb, to have, when a question is asked 
with it : the nominative pronoun is placed after the verb. 
This pronoun must be connected to the verb by a hyphen ; as, 
ai-je. Je, is there pronounced like a mute syllable, and al- 
ways retains the e, even before a vowel. 

In the third person singular, should the verb which imme- 
diately precedes il and elle, end in a vowel, the letter t preced- 
ed and followed by a hyphen, must be placed between the pro- 
noun and the verb, to prevent the meeting of two vowels: as, 
a-t-il ; aur a-t-elle. 

A question cannot be asked in the infinitive, imperative, or 
subjunctive moods: therefore, an interrogative verb does not 
possess these moods. The learner must not consider may I, 
or may he, as being in the subjunctive mood, in French. See 
the note page 93. 

INDICATIVE. 

SIMPLE TENSES. 
PRESENT. 

ai-je! have I? ai-je 

as-tu? hast thou? as-tu 

a-t-il? has he a-t-il 

a-t-elle? has she? a-t-elle 

avons-nous ? have ive ? avons-nous 

avez-vous ? have you ? avez-vous 

ont " ils? Ihavethev? ' Qn ^& 

ont-elles? y™vetaey! ont _ elles 

N. B. The rest of the verb may be written by the pupil, if thought 
necessary by the teacher, after the manner of the above two tenses. 

THE VERB Avoir, INTERRO -NEGATIVELY. 

To express a verb in the interrogative way, with a negative, 
ne is placed before the interrogative verb, and pas or point 
after the pronoun which immediately follows the verb. 

Fas or point occupies the same place as not does in 
English. 

The same rules which apply to verbs, interrogatively 
apply also to verbs when used in the following manner. 

How are interrogative verbs formed? — How is the pronoun connected with 
the verb ?— How can you prevent the meeting of the final vowel of a verb and 
the initial vowel of il and elle in interrogative verbs. 



COMPOUND TENSES. 
PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 

have I 
hast thou 
has he 
has she 
have we 
have you 

> have they 






VERBS. 



97 



INDICATIVE. 



SIMPLE TENSES. 
PRESENT. 



tfai-je pas ? 
n'as-tu pas ? 
n'a-t-il pas ? 
n'a-t-elle pas ? 
n'avons-nous 

pas? 
n'avez- vous pas? have you not ? 



have I not ? 
hast thou not ? 
has he not ? 
has she not ? 
have we not? 



n'ai-je pas 
n'as-tu pas 
n'a-t-il pas 
n'a-t-elle pas? 
n'avons-nous 

pas 
n'avez-vous 



COMPOUND TENSES. 
PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 

have I not 
hast thou not 
has he not 
has she not 
have we not 



n'ont-ils pas ? ) , . 

n'ont-ellespas?r awwn< " ? 



have you not 



) have they 
) not 






pas 
n'ont-ils pas 
n'ont-elles pas d 

N. B. The rest may be written or simply learned, like the above 
two tenses. 

THE VERB Etre, TO BE. 

INFINITIVE. 

PRESENT. 

Etre 



Etant 



PRESENT. 

to be 


PAST. 

Avoir £te to have been. 
PARTICIPLES. 


PRESENT. 


COMPOUND. 



being 
been 



> ayant ete having been 



je suis 
tu es 
il est (1) 
elle est 



I am 
thou art 
he is 
she is 



INDICATIVE. 

PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 

I have 



nous sommes (2) we are 
vous etes (2) you are 
ils sont they m. are 

elles sont (1) they f. are 

IMPERFECT. 

I ic as or used 
to be 



i'etais (3) 
tu etais 



j'ai 
tu as 
ila 
elle a 

nous avons 
vous avez 
ils ont 
elles ont 

j'avais 

tu avais 



i 



thou hast 
he has 
she has 
we have 
you have 
they m. have 
they f. ha e 

■ UPERFECT, 

I had 



■il etait 



thou wast or 

usedst to be 
he was or used il avait 

to be 
we ic ere or 

used to be 
you ic ere or 

used to be 
ils etaient (4) they were or 

used to be 



nous etions 



;vous etiez 



nous avions 



vous aviez 



ils avaient 



thcu hadst 
he had 
we had 
you had 
they had 



(1) Elle and elles will be no longer repeated, since the inflexions of the verbs 
. which accompany these pronouns are the same as those that follow Hand ils. 

(2) (4) Remember that es and ent are silent in verbs. 

! (3) Formerly fetois, tu etois, il etoit, ils etoient ; oi or <ii are pronounced like e. 

9 



98 



VERBS. 



SIMPLE TENSES. 



COMPOUND TENSES* 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 


(1) PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 


je fus 


I was 


j'eus 




I had 


tu fus 


thou wast 


tu eus 




thou hadst 


il fut 


he was 


il eut 


rp» 


he had 


nous fumes 


we were 


nous eumes 


a>s 


io e had 


vous futes 


you were 


vous eutes 




you had 


ils furent 


they iv ere 


ils eurent 


they had 


FUTURE 


ABSOLUTE. 


FUTURE ANTERIOR. 


je serai (2) 


I shall or will 

be 
thou shalt or 


j'aurai 




I shall or will 


tu seras 


tu auras 




thou shalt or 




loilt be 






wilt 


il sera 


he shall or will 


il aura 




he shall or 




be 




" & 


will 


nous serons 


we shall ! or will 


nous aurons 


we shall or 




be 






will 


vous serez 


you shall or 
ivill be 


vous aurez 




you shall or 
will 


ils seront 


they shall or 


ils auront 




they shall or 




will be 


], 




I ivill 




CONDITIONAL. 


PRESENT 










PAST. 



je serais (3) J should or j'aurais 

would be 
tu serais thou shouldst tu aurais 

or wouldst be 

il serast he should or il aurait 

would be 
nous seriorts We should or nous aUrions 

would be 
vous seriez you should or vous auriez 

would be 
ils seraient they should or ils auraient 

would be 



I should or 

would have 
thou shouldst 

or wouldst 

have 
he should or 

loould have 
we should or 

would have 
you should or 

would have 
they should or 

would have . 




IMPERATIVE. 



sois 

soyons 

soyez 



be (thou) 

let us be 

be (ye or you) 



(1) See the difference between the imperfect and preterit explained under the 
verb avoir. 

(2) Pronounced like e or a in rake. 

(3) Formerly^ serois, tu serois, il seroit f ils seroient ; oi and at, are pronounced 
like e, Or e in wreck. 






VERBS. 



99 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



que je sois 
que tu sois 

qu'il soit 

que nous soyons 

que vous soyez 

qu'ils soient 



that I may be 
that thou 

may'st be 
that he may be 

or lei him be 
that we may 

be 
that you may 

be 
that they may 

be or let them 

be 



que j'aie 
que tu 
aies 
qu'il ait 

que nous 
ayons 

que vous 
ayez 

qu'ils 
aient 



fete 



que nous 
fuss ions 

que. vous 
fussiez 

qu'ils fus- 
sent 



>ete 



IMPERFECT. 

que je fusse that I might que j'eusse 

be 

que tu fusses that thou que tu 

mighVst be eusses 

qu'il fut that he might qu'il eut 
be 

that we might que nous 

be eussions 

that you que vous 

might be eussiez 

that they qu'ils 

might be eussent 

This verb is made interrogative and negative, &c, in the 
same way as avoir, 

THE VERB Etre, NEGATIVELY. 

INFINITIVE. 



PRETERIT. 

that I may 
that thou 

may'st 
that he 

may 
that 10 e 

may 
that you 

may 
that they 

may 

1 

PLUPERFECT. 

that I might 

that thou 

might 1 st 
that he 

might 
that we 

might 
that you 

might 
that they 

might 



r <* 



PRESENT. 

ne pas etre not to be 



n'avoir pas 6ie 
PARTICIPLES. 



PAST. 

not to have been 



PRESENT. 






COMPOUND. 


ii'etant pas 


not being n 


'ayant pas ete 


not having been 




INDICATIVE. 




PRESENT. 




PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 


Je ne suis pas 


/ am not 


je n'ai pas ete 


I have not been 


tu n'es pas 


thou art not 


tu n'as pas ete 


thou hast not been 


il n'est pas 


he is not 


il n'a pas ete 


he has not been 


nous ne sommes 


we are not 


nous n'avons 


we have not been 


pas 




pas ete 




vous n'etes pas 


you are not 


vous n'avez pas 

ete 
ils n'ont pas £te, 


you have not been 


jls ne sont pas, 


they are not t 


they have not been. 


&C. 


fyc, 


&c, 


4-ci 



100 



suis-je ? 
es-tu ? 
est-il? 

sommes-nous ? 
etes-vous ? 
sont-ils? &c. 



VERBS. 

THE YERB Eire, INTERROGATIVELY. 

INDICATIVE. 






am I? 
art thou ? 
is he ? 
are we ? 
are you 7 



PRETERITE INDEFIN 

ai-je ete ? have I been ? 



as-tu ete? 
a-t-ii ete ? 
avons-nous ete* ? 
avez-vous 6t&1 
are they ? fyc. ont-ils et€ ? &c. 



hast thou been? 
has he been ? 
have toe been ? 
have ycu been? 
have they been? fyc. 



the verb etrej intee.ro-negatively. 



ne suis-je pas? 
ft'es-tu pas ? 

n'esi-il pas? 
ne sommes-nous 

pas? 
n'etes-vous pas? 

ne sont-ils pas ? 



am I not ? n'ai-je pas ete ? 
art thou not ? n'as-tu pas et£ ? 

is he not ? n'a-t-il pas et^ ? 
are we not ? n'avons-nous pas 

ete? 
are you not ? n'avez-vous pas 

ete? 
are they not ? n'ont-ils pas £te ? 
fyc. &c. 



have I not been ? 
hast thou not 

been ? 
has he not been ? 
have we not bee\ 

have you not 

been ? 
have they not 

been ? <^c» 



N. B. Etre as an auxiliary is used, as in English, in the 
formation of passive verbs \ it is used also with that class of 
French verbs, which is called pronominal, and with many of 
the French neuter verbs, (active intransitive) a list of which 
will be given in its proper place. 

Rule 1. — The past participle of passive verbs, and that of 
neuter verbs conjugated with the auxiliary etre, must agree 
in gender and number with the nominative to the verb. 

Rule 2. — The French verb etre, cannot be followed by a 
present participle. 

Etre, to be, is also a substantive or neuter verb. It is usi 
principally as such, in the first exercises, 

SECTION II. 

OF THE CONJUGATIONS, 

The difference between the different simple tenses of a 
French verb is made, by a change in the termination: Thus, 
the present, imperfect, preterit, future, &c, end each in a dif- 
ferent manner. 




How are interro-negative verbs formed ?— What is to be observed of the Em 
glish present participle after to be?— What is to be observed of the past partich 
pie after the French verb etre ?— How are the different tenses of ^ ver,b marked; 3 



VERBS. 101 

To conjugate a verb, is to write or recite it throughout its 
different moods and tenses. 

What has been said of the different sorts of verbs, only re- 
lates to their various functions in sentences, for which an ex- 
planation will be given after the four conjugations are well un- 
derstood. As for the terminations or variations of their differ- 
ent tenses and persons, they follow the models of conjugation 
given below. 

There are in French four conjugations which can be distin- 
guished by the termination of the present of the infinitive. 
The first ends in ev, the second in ir : the third in oir, and the 
fourth in re. 

IMPORTANT OBSERVATION. 

As has been seen above, it is not in accordance with the ge- 
nius of the French language to use the verb etre, before a pre- 
sent participle. Besides, there is in French no verb corres- 
ponding to the English verb to do, when an auxiliary. There- 
fore the expressions, / am speaking, I do speak, he was 
speaking-, he did speak, §c, instead of being rendered word 
for word into French, are translated by the corresponding 
simple tenses ; as, / speak y I spoke, tf-c. 

For the benefit of the learner, the French verbs will be given in the 
conjugations with the different English expressions which they repre- 
sent ; but it will be sufficient to recite the first column of the English ; 
the rest will be understood. 

FIRST CONJUGATION IN ei\ [1] 

INFINITIVE. 

Present. parl-er (2) to speak to be speaking 

Past. avoir parl-e to have spoken to have been speaking 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. parl-an$ speaking 

Past. parl-e spoken 

Compound. ayant-parW having spoken having been speaking 

How many conjugations are there in French 1 — How are the verb to be, and 
a following present participle translated into French 1— How is the auxiliary 
verb to do, followed by a verb, expressed in French ? 

[1] Upon the model of which, nearly four-fifths of the verbs are conjugated, 
<more than 4000.) 
[2] Pronounced parte* 

9* 



103 



VERBS* 



INDICATIVE. 



a- • 



m 



Je parl-e 
tu parl-es (1) 
il parl-e 
elle parl-e 
nous parl-ons 
vous parl-ez (2) 
ils parl-e?i£ 
elles parl-e ji£ (3) 



/ speak I am 

thou spealcest thou art 
he speaks he is 
she speaks she is 
we speak we are 

you speak you are 
they m. speak they m. are 
they f. speak they f. are 



I do 

thou doest 
he does: 
she does 
we do 
you do 
they m. do 
they f. do 



PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 



f 



c 

o 
a- 



Q 



J'ai parl-e 
tu as parl-e 
il a parl-e 
elle a parl-e' 
nous avons parl-e' 
vous avez parl-e 
ils ont parl-e 
elles ont parl-e 



I have 




thou hast 




he has 


j» 


she has 


05 


we have 


you have 


jS 


they m. have 




they f. have 


i 



I have been 
thou hast been 
he has been 
she has been 
we have been 
you have been 
they m. have been 
they f. have been 






^ 1 

a, 
S 
w 



Je parl-az's (4) 
tu parl-ais 
il parl-aii 
nous parl-ions 
vous parl-zez 
L ils parl-aienf 



IMPERFECT. 

J was speaking 
thou toast speaking 
he was speaking 
we were speaking 
you were speaking 
they were speaking 



I used to speak 
thou usedst to speak 
he used to speak 
we used to speak 
you used to speak 
they used to speak 






' Pavais parl-e' 
tu avais parl-e' 
il avait parl-e 
nous avions parl-e 
vous aviez parl-e 
ils avaient parl-e 



PLUPERFECT. 

J had spoken 
thou hadst spoken 
he had spoken 
w e had spoken 
you had spoken 
they had spoken 



I had been 
thou hadst been 
he had been 
iv e had been 
you had been 
they had been 






^ r Je parl-ai (5) 

g tuparl-as 

2 ! il pari- a 
* ] nous parl-ames 
vous parl-tites 
ils parl-eren£ 



a. 

s 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

I spoke 
thou spokest 
he spoke 
we spoke 
you spoke 
they spoke 



I did speak 
thou didst speak 
he did speak 
we did speak 
you did speak 
they did speak 



[1] [3] Remember that esand erf a.re silent in the terminations of verbs. 
[2] ez pronounced like e. 
[4] Ais has the sound of e. 
f 5] Ai has the sound of c. 



VERBS. 



103 



. f Peus parl-£ 
g | tu eus parl-e 
£ j il cut parl-e 
^ "] nous eumes parl-e 
o | vous evites parl-e 
^ (^ ils eurent parl-e 



PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 

/ had spoken 
thou hadst spoken 
he had spoken 
we had spoken 
you had spoken 
they had spoken 



I had been 
thou hadst been 
he had been 
we had been 
you had been 
they had been 



1 



o f Je parl-eraz (1) 
g tu parl-eras 
** J il parl-era 
•g, | nous pari- erons 
Ji | vous parl-erez 
2 (^ ils parl-eron* 



I shall, or will speak I shall, or will be 

thou shall, or wilt speak thou shalt or ivilt be 

he shall, or will speak he shall or will be 

we shall, or loill speak we shall, or will be 

you shall, or will speak you shall, or will be 

they shall, or will speak they shall, or will be 

FUTURE ANTERIOR. 



?f 



' J'aurai parl-e' 



o 

-faj 

£ < 

0. 

S 



I shall, or loill have I shall, or will have been 

spoken speaking. 

tu auras parl-e' thou shalt, or wilt have thou shalt, or wilt have 

spoken been speaking. 

il aura parl-e he shall, or w-itt have he shall, or will have been 

spoken speaking 

nous aurons parl-e we shall, or will have we shall, or will have been 

spoken speaking 

vous aurez parl-e' you shall, or will have you shall, or will have 

spoken been speaking 

ils auront parl-e' they shall, or will have they shall, or will have, 

spoken been speaking 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 

f Je parl-enris (2) I should, or would I should, or would be 

speak speaking 

tu parl-erais thou shouldsi, or thou shouldst, or wouldst 

wouldst speak be speaking. 

il parl-era# he should or loould he should, or would be 

speak speaking. 

nous parl-erions we should, or would we should, or would be 

speak speaking. 

vous parl-enez you should, or would you shoidd, or would he 

speak speaking. 

ils pari- eraient they should, or would they should, or would he 

speak. speaking. 



[1] Ai has, in all the futures, the sound of e, or a in rake. 

[2] Ais, formerly ois, oit, oient, are pronounced like <?, or e in wreck. 

What is the difference in sound between aw in the imperfect, and ai in the. pre- 
terit ?— Have fiaal es any sound in French verbs ? 



104 



VERBS. 



O 

B 
o 

Oh 

£ 
o 
O 



CONDITIONAL. 

PAST. 

I should, or ivouW 



thou shouldst, or 

woxddst 
he should, or wowJd 



' J'aurais 

parl-e 
tu aurais 

parl-e 
il aurait 

parl-e 
nous aurions we should, or would 

parl-e' 
vous auriez you should,or would 

parl-e' 
ils auraient they should, or 

parl-e' would 



I should, or would "' 

thou shouldst, or 

wouldst 
he should, or wowZd 

we should, or wow/d 

2/om should, or would 

they should, or would 






I 



Remark. The e that precedes the r is mute, according 



to the rule, in the future and conditional. 



IMPERATIVE. 



Parl-e 

parl-on5 
parl-ez 



speak (thou) 

let us speak 
speak (you or ye) 



do (thou) 
speak 

do (you or 
t/e) speak 



be (thou) 

let us be 
be(youorye) 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



Oh 
§ 



que je parl-e that I may 

que tu parl-es that thou may est 
qu'il parl-e that he may 

or let him 
que nous parl-ions that we may 
que vous parl-iez that you may 
qu'ils parl-en£ that they may 

or let them 



that I may 
that thou may est 
that he may 

or let him 
that we may 
that you may 
that they may 

or let them 



1 



c 

a 

a 
o 

Oh 

B 
o 



PRETERIT. 

that I may 
that thou 
mayest 
that he may 
que nous ayons parl-e* that we may 
que vous ayez parl-e* that you may 
qu'ils aient pari- e that they may 



que j'aie parl-e* 
que tu aies parl-e* 

qu'il ait parl-e* 



that I may 
that thou 
mayest 
that he may 
that we may 
that you may 
thai they may 



I 



VERBS. 



105 



si 

&, I 



que je parl-asse 
que tu pari- asses 

qu'il parl-af 
que nous parl-ass£o?is 
que vous parl-asskz 
qifils parl-assen* 



IMPERFECT. 

that I might 
that thou 
mighVst 
that he might 
that we might 
thai you might 
that they might 

PLUPERFECT. 



que j'eusse parl-e 
que tu eusses parl-e 

qu'il eut parl-e 
que nous eussions parl-e 
que vous eussiez parl-e 
qu'ils eussent parl-e' 



r a 



i 



that I might 
thai thou 
mighVst 
that he might 
that we might 
thai you might 
thai they might 



£ 



that I might f that I might 

that thou I U" that thou 

mighVst I ^ mighVst 

that he might >^ that he might 

that w t might j §- that we might 

that you might p that you might 

that they might that they might 

N. B. The difference between each person of the different tenses of 
a verb and its infinitive is called variation. 

Since the tenses of the French verbs are distinguished by their ter*- 
animations, that termination must be common to all the verbs. Every 
variation of a verb must, therefore, have two distinct pc<.r,s : the first 
containing the meaning of the verb, the second showing in what tense 
and person it is. The former is called the root, the latter is the addition^ 

In the verb parler, the root is separated from the addition by a hyphen, 
but that hyphen is never used in writing the verb, and is placed here 
only to help the learner to conjugate the other verbs. 

In all verbs of the first conjugation (all those ending in er) er is the 
addition, and what precedes is the root. 

As the root is unchangeable by its nature, writing a verb like parler 
is merely substituting the root of that verb foi pari, the root of parler, or* 
in other words, placing the addition of parler, after the root of the verb, 
which is to be written. 

Suppose that the verb given is porter, to carry ; er being the addition^. 
port must be the root. Then the learner will write in the present of the, 
indicative, je porte, in the imperfect, je portais, &c. 

Write porter, to carry ; demeure** ; to live ; oublier to forget ; 
or any other verb ending in rev, and ier, as, although verbs of 
these two terminations are regularly conjugated, yet the learn- 
er is very liable to write some of their tenses wrong, jfdr fear 
of putting too many letters. 

In verbs ending in cer and get, the c and g\ which are the* 
last letters of the root, are sometimes followed by e and i 9 and; 
sometimes by a and 0. In the. latter instance they would be-, 

_ What does the word variation, applied to verbs, signify ? — What is the root of 
a'verb ? — What is the addition ? — Kow can one verb be written like another h& 
"What is the difficulty of verbs ending- in cer?— Of those^ ending in gerl 



106 VERBS. 

come hard, according to the rules of pronunciation ; but the 
soft sound of c and g is preserved throughout the verb, and is 
given to these letters, as follows: 

In verbs ending in cer, a cedilla must be placed under the 
c, when it precedes aoroj and in verbs ending in ger, the g 
not receiving a cedilla, an e mute is placed between g and a, 
or o. Ex. : nous for pons, nous mangeons. 

The learner will conjugate the verbs, forcer, to force, and 
mange?*, to eat. 

N. B. Some of these verbs may be written affirmatively, and 
others interrogatively, or negatively, or interro-negatively. 

The learner must look at the explanations given below with 
the verbs alter, to go, and envoyer, to send. 

In verbs ending in yer, the y would, m some of the tenses 
and persons, come before e mute, which is not allowed in 
French, as has been explained. In these verbs, therefore, y is 
changed into i before e mute. 

The learner will write on this rule, payer, to pay ; appuyer, 
to support ; employer, to employ. 

There are some verbs, the penultimate syllable of w r hich 
ends in e mute 3 as, jeter, to throw ; appeler, to call. In the 
tenses and persons of these verbs which end in e mute, two 
mute e's wouM come in succession at the end of a word, which 
is net allowed in French, The first of these two e's must 
therefore be made grave. 

It would be advisable that a uniform method of altering the 
sound of this e, when required, should be adopted. Some 
grammarians have proposed to put a grave accent in all the 
verbs which fall under that exception : but verbs which end 
in eler or eter, except, acheter, to buy, according to custom make 
their first e grave, by doubling the/ or t. In all other termina- 
tions, a grave accent is used for that purpose. Ex. ifappelle, 
jejette, je mene, &c. 

This practise is also extended to the future and conditional, 
although the two e's be at the beginning of the word. 

N. B. It is thought that the adoption of the grave accent in verbs ending in eler 
and eter would save some trouble to learners, and they are therefore advised to 
profit by that improvement. 

Write on this rule appeler, to call ; acheter, to buy ; mener 
to lead. 

If the penultimate syllable end in e with an acute accent, 
that accent must be changed into a grave one, in the same in- 
stances, but only when the last syllable begins with a conso- 
nant Ex.: celer, to conceal; reveler, to reveal; write, je cele y 
tu reveles. 

What is the difficulty of verbs ending in yer 1— eler ?— eter ?~r-Of those, the 
penultimate syllable of which ends me mute ? 



VERBS. 107 

Write cider, to yield. 

Should the last syllable be simply er, the acute accent should 
be preserved throughout. Ex. creer, to create ;jecree, I create. 

Write agreer, to agree. 

N. B. Some grammarians suggest the use of a diaeresis over the mute 
t of the verb arguer, to argue; as, f argue, to show that the u must be 
sounded separately from the e ; and also on the l in verbs ending in uer, 
as, nous tuwns, we were killing ; in order to have ui pronounced in two 
syllables. That rule is not generally laid down, though useful. 

Remark. Poets are allowed in all verbs where er is preceded by a 
vowel, such as, avouer, to confess ; prier, to pray, &c, to suppress, in 
the future and conditional, the e which precedes the r ; but then they 
indicate that suppression by placing a circumflex accent over that vow- 
el ; a.s,favourai, je prirais, instead of, j' avouer ai,je prierais. 

OF THE NEGATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND INTERRO- 
NEGAT1VE VERBS. 

All negative, interrogative, and interro-negative verbs in 
French, are formed as already described in avoir and etre, 
viz : — the negative by ne and pas or pointy and the interroga- 
tive by reversing the nominative pronoun, &c. The necessity 
of this arrangement is explained by the observation prefixed 
to the verb parler. Nothing remains but to give examples of 
the relation between the French and English verb. 

Observe, that in compound tenses, the auxiliary, alone, is 
put in the negative or interrogative, as in the preceding 
verbs avoir and etre, and that the past participle always comes 
last. 

NEGATIVE VERBS. 

Remark. There are two verbs of the conjugation in er, which 
are irregular, viz, alter, to go ; and envoy er, to send; and as a 
verb expressing a negation, is here to be conjugated throughout, 
it has been thought advisable to choose one of these {alter, to go) 
for that purpose, so that the learner will have an opportunity 
to become acquainted with them. {Envoy er will be conjugated 
interrogatively.) 

N. B. Two more irregular verbs of the first conjugation are spoken 
of in French grammars, viz. puer, to emit an offensive smell, and tisser, 
to weave ; but the former (besides its being banished from polite conver- 
sation) is now used only in its regular tenses; viz., infinitive mood, pre- 
sent, imperfect, and future of the indicative, and present of the condition- 
al ; and the only irregularity existing in the latter is in the formation 
of its past participle tissu, which is borrowed from tistre. This verb 
will be found as the model of interro-negative verbs. 

In conjugating the verb aller, it will be perceived that in 
the formation of its compound tenses, the verb etre, to be, and 

How many irregular verbs of the first conjugation are there ? — Name them? — 
What is the irregularity in tisser ? — That in puer ? 



108 



VERBS. 



not avoir, to have, is used, and this will be an appropriate 
place to put in practice the first rule on the verb to be, page 100. 



Pres. Ne pas aller 
Past, n'etre pas alle 

Pres. n'allantpas 

Past. alle" 

Com. n'dtant pas alle" 



verb Mler, to go, negatively. 
INFINITIVE. 

not to go 

not to have gone 

PARTICIPLES 

not going 

gone 

not to have gone 

INDICATIVE. 



not to be going 

not to have been going 



not to have been going. 



r Je ne vais pas 
5 ; tu ne vas pas 
c ll ne va pas 
*» J elle ne va pas 
S ', neus n'allons pas 
§< j vous n'allez pas 
•^ ils ne vont pas 
L elles ne vont pas 



PRESENT. 

Ido 

thou dost 

he does 

she does 

we do 

you do 

they m. do » 

they f. do J 

PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 



Torq 



T3 
C 

C 

a, 



Je ne suis pas "] 
tu n'es pas i alle" m. 

il n'est pas ( allde /. 

elle n'est pas J 
nous ne sommesl 



pas 
vous n'etes pas 

ils ne sont pas 
elles ne sont pas ' 



all£s m. 
'allees/. 



Je n'allais pas 
tu n'allais pas 
ii n'allait pas 
nous n'allions pas 
vous n'alliez pas 
t ils n'allaient pas 



Je n'£tais pas 
tu n'etais pas 
il n'eHait pas 
nous nations pas 
vous nlljtiez pis 
jU n'e'taicnt pas 



IMPERFECT. 

/ w as 
Thou wast 
he io as 
we were 
you were 
they were 

PLUPERFECT. 



I orq 

I' 



J alle m. 
I ailed/. 

f aM£s m. 



I had ~\ 

thou hadst 
he had 
we had 



1 1 

cm 



f*m S»tt j 



I have 




thou ha»t 




he has 




she has 


o 


we have 






>QKi 




© 


you have 




they m. have 




they f. have 





lam 
thou art 
he is 
she is 
we are 
you are 
they m. are 
tliey f. are 



I have 
thou hast 
he has 
she has 
we have 

you have 

they m. have 
they f. have 



I did 

thou didst 
he did 
we, did 
you did 
they did 

I had 
thou hadst 
he had 
we had 
you had 
they had 






1 



VERBS. 



109 



w 



o 



J2 i 



r Je n'allai pas 

tu n'allas pas 

il n'alla pas 

nous n'al James pas 

vous n'allates pas 
u ils n'allerent pas 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

/ did not go 
thou didst not go 
he did not go 
we did not go 
you did not go 
they did not go 

PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 



t all e m. 
I allee /. 



Je ne fus pas 

tu ne fus pas 

il ne fut pas 

nous ne fumes pas \ 

vous ne futes | allesm. 

pas bailees/, 

ils ne furent 

pas 



I had 
thou hadst 
he had 
we had 
you had 

they had 



I went not 
thou wentest not 
he went not 
we went not 
you went not 
they went not 



I had 
thou hadst 
he had 
xo e had 
you had 



or^ 



they had 



S J 
O ' 

2 
o 

O 



Je n'irai pas 
tu n'iras pas 
il n'ira pas 
nous n'irons pas 
vous n'irez pas 
ils n'iront pas 

• Je ne serai pas ' 
tu ne seras pas 
il ne sera pas 

nous ne serons' 

pas 
vous ne serez 

pas 
ils ne seront pas 



FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 



I shall, or will 
thou shall, or wilt 
he shall, or will 
we shall, or will 
you shall, or xoill 
they shall, or will 



3 



FUTURE ANTERIOR, 

I shall or 

will 
thou shall 

or wilt 
he shall, 

or will 
we shall, Y i 

or w ill 
you shall, 

or will 
they shall, 

or ivill 

CONDITIONAL. 



alle m. 
allee/. 



>all£sra. 
allee s/. 



I shall, or will 
thou shalt, or wilt 
he shall, or will 
we shall, or will 
you shall, or will 
they shall, or will 



I shall, or 

will 
thou shall, or 

wilt 
he shall, or 

io ill 
we shall, or 

will 
you shall, or 

will 
they shall, or 

will 



05 



1 



PRESENT. 

Je n'irais pas I should, or 

would 
tu n'irais pas thou shouldst, or 

wouldst 
il n'irait pas he should, or 
would 

3 ^ nous n'irions we should, or 
g pas would 

°zfi vous n'iriez you should, or 
pas would 

ils n'iraient they should, or 
pas would 

10 



3 

o 

>0^ 



I should, or 

would 
thou shouldst, c 

wouldst 
he should, or 

would 
we should, or 

would 
you should, or 

would 
they should, or 

would 



© 



no 



VERBS. 



S 
o 
O 



~Jc ne serais 

pas 
tu ne serais 

pas 
il ne serait 

pas 
nous ne se- 

rions pas 



alle* m. 
' altee/. 



I should, or 

would 
thou shouidst, 

or wouldst 
he should, or 

would 
we should, or 

ivould 



vous ne seriez I allesm. i/ow should, or 
pas [ allies/. woit/d 

ils ne seraient they should, or 

pas J would 

IMPERATIVE. 



I should, or 

would 
thou shouidst, 

or wouldst 
he shoidd, or 

would 
we should, or 

would 
you should, or 

£Afiy should, or 



3 



4 



ne va pas 
n'allons pas 
n'allez pas 



do (thou) not go 

let us not go 

do (ye or you) not go 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 



be (thou) not 

lei us not be 

bs (ye or you) not 



;* 



s 



que je n'aille that I may 

pas 

que tu n'ailles that thou mayest 

pas 

qu 'il n'aille pas that he may 
or let him 

que nous n'al- that we may 

lions pas 

que vous n'al- that you may 

liez pas 

qu'ils n^aillent that they may 

pas or let them 



that I may 

that thou mayest 

that he may 

or let him 

that we may 

that you may 

that they may 
or let them 



§ 

o 
ft 
£ 



que je ne sois' 

pas 
que tu ne sois 

pas 
qu'il ne soit 

pas 
que nous ne 

soyons pas 
que vous ne 

soyez pas 
qu'ils ne soi- 

ent pas 



alle* m. 
Vallee/. 



PRETERIT. 

that I may 

that thou 

mayest 

that he may 

that we may 



all£s m. that you may 
allees/. 

that they may 



that I may 

thai thou 
mayest 
that he may 

that we may 

that you may 

that they may 



3 

1. 



VERBS. 








11] 


IMPERFECT. 




that I might 




that I might 


that thou 
mighVst 
that he might 
that we might 


© 
%J 3 


that thou mighVst 

that he might 
that iv e might 


s 

0^ 


that you might 




that you might 


f 


that they might 

J 




that they might 

J 




PLUPERFECT. 




that I might 

> alle* m. that thou 

allee/. mighVst 

that he might 

\ 

i 

all£s m, that we might 

\ allies /. that you might 

that they might 


o 

i 

<§ 


that I might 

that thou g* 

mighVst ^ 

that he might «•• 

that we might J- 

<§ 
that you might §• 
°? 
hat they might 




J 




. 





"que je n'allasse 

pas 
que tu n'allasses 

pas 
qu'il n'allat pas 
que nous n'allas- 

sions pas 
que vous n'allas- 

siez pas 
qu'ils n'allassent 
L pas 



que je ne fusse 

pas 
que tu ne fusses 

pas 
qu'il ne fut pas 
que nous ne fus- 

sions pas 
que vous ne 

fussiez pas 
qu'ils ne fussent 

pas 

The above verb may be learnt affirmatively, which will be done by- 
leaving out the negatives. 

OF THE INTERROGATIVE VERBS. 

All verbs are made interrogative in French in the manner 
above mentioned ; viz. the nominative pronoun is placed after 
the verb. 

1 Remark 1. Since, in interrogative verbs, the nominative 
pronouns are placed after the verbs, do 1 speak ? will be 
translated by parle-je? But observe that je being joined to 
that word, which ends in e mute, two mute e's come in suc- 
cession, at the end of a word. This must be prevented, as 
usual, by placing a grave accent on the first e ; which then 
has a grave sound ; as, parle-je. 

Remark 2. The learner will remember that in verbs end- 
ing in yer> y is changed into i before e mute, and that in 
verbs, the penultimate syllable of which ends in e mute, a 
grave accent must be placed on this e, when the next con- 
sonant is followed by e mute, or this consonant must be 
doubled ; as, j'emploie, je mine, j'appelle or j'appele* But 
this alteration must not take place in the first person of the 

What must be observed in writing the first person interrogatively of verbs 
of the first conjugation ?— What in those ending in yer ?— In those, the penulti- 
mate syllable of which ends in e rnute 1 



112 



VERBS. 



present of the indicative of an interrogative verb, since the 
final e is made grave. Thus, write employe-je, mene-je, and 
appele-je. 

N. B. See, after the model of the conjugation of the verb interro- 
negatively, w hat is said of the second manner of making verbs inter- 
rogative. 

The verb envoyer, which has been selected as an example 
of the mode of conjugating an interrogative verb, is one of 
the two irregular verbs of the first conjugation. But it is ir- 
regular only in the future and conditional* The tenses there- 
fore, that are not put down can be formed when wanted. 

INDICATIVE. 



§ 



* envoye-je ? 

envoies-tu ? 

envoie-t-il ? 

envoie-t-elle ? 

envoyons-nous ? 

envoyez-vous ? 

envo»ent-ils ? 
l envoient-elles ? 



PRESENT. 

do I send 
dost thou send 
does he send 
does she send 
do iv e send 
do you send 
do they m. send 
do they f. send 

PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 



"2 

r 



O 



ai-je envoye ? 
as-tu envoye ? 
a-t-il envoye ? 
a-t-elle envoys ? 
avons-nous envoye* ? 
avez-vous envoye ? 
ont-ils envoye ? 



have I sent 
hast thou sent 
has he sent 
has she sent 
have we sent 
have you sent 
have they m. sent 



i 



ont-elles eriYoye ? have they f. sent 






s 

o5 



' envoyais-je 
envoyais-tu 
envoyait-il 
envoy ions-nous 
envoyiez-vous 
envoyaient-ils 



IMPERFECT. 

was I sending 
wast thou sending 
was he sending 
were toe sending 
were you sending 
%o ere they sending 

PLUPERFECT. 



am I sending 
art thou sending 
is he sending 
is she sending 
are we sending 
are you sending 
are they m. sending 
are they f. sending 

have I been sending 
hast thou been sending 
has he been sending 
has she been sending 
have we been sending 
have you been sending 
have they m. been 

sending 
have they f. been send~ 

ing 

did I use to send 
didst thou use to send 
did he use to send 
did we use to send 
did you use to send 
did they use to send 



« favais-je 
§ avais-tu 
^ I avait-il 
oA avions-nous 
S 1 aviez-vous 
rj tavaient-ils 



3 
as 



had I sent 
hadst thou sent 
had he sent 
had we sent 
had you sent 
had they sent 



What is the irregularity in the verb tnpoyer ? 



had I 
hadst tkou 
had he 
had we 
had you 
had they 



<8" 



VERBS. 



113 



envoyai-je 

envoyas-tu 

envoya-t-il 

envoyames-nous 

envoyates-vous 

envoyerent-ils 



eus-je 
eus-tu 
" ^ eut-il 

eumes-nous 
eutes-vous 



1 



O t^urent-ils 



enverrai-je 
enverras-tu 






enverra-t-il 

enverrons-nous 

enverrez-vous 

enverront-ils 



aurai- je 
auras- tu 

aura-t-il 

aurons-nous 
aurez-vous 

auront-ils 



.§ 



enverrais-je 

enverrais-tu 

enverrait>il 

enverrions-nous 

enverriez-vous 

enverraient-ils 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

did I send 
didst thou send 
did he send 
did ice send 
did you send 
did they send 

PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 

had I 
hadst thou 
had he 
had we 
had you 
had they 

FUTURE. 

shall I send 
shalt or wilt thou 

send 
shall or will he send 
shall to e send 
shall or will you 

send 
shall or will they 

send 

FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

shall I 
shalt or loilt 

thou 
shall or will he 

shall we 
shall or will 

you 
shall or wUl 

they 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 

should or would I 

send 
shouldst or wouldst 

thou send 
should or would he 

send 
should or would we 

send 
should or would you 

send 
should or icould they 

send 

10* 



sent I 

sentst thou 
sent he 
sent we 
sent you 
sent they 



had I 


o* 


hadst thou 


CO 

3 


had he 


CO 


had we 


1 


had you 


had they 


°? 



shall I 

shalt or wilt thou 

shall or will he 

shall we 

shall or will you 

shall or will they 



shall I have 
shalt or wilt 

thou have 
shall or will he 

have 
shall we have 
shall or will you 

have 
shall or will they 

have 



should or would I 

should or wouldst 

thou 
should or would he 

should or would 

we 
should or would 

you 
should or would 

they 



.8; 



114 



VERBS. 





" aurais-je 






aurais-tu 




s 

2 

1 

1 


aurait-il 
aurions-nous 




aunez-vous 




o 


auraient-ils 





rZ 



$ 

£• 



w 



PAST. 

sftott£<2 or luow/d! J^ should or wouW / ' 

shouldst or shouldst or 

ivouldst thou wouldst thou 

should or wcwJd ^ should or wow/d 

/ie 1 Ae 

should or tycraW ^ * should or icowW 

we § toe 

should or wotiZcJ ** should or wowJi 

*/ow 2/o^ 

should or would should or iPouZd 

N. B. If the imperative and subjunctive moods are wanted affirma- 
tively, they can be formed like parltr, as they are regular, merely ob- 
serving what is said of verbs ending in yer. 

Rule.— When the nominative of an interrogative verb is a 
substantive, the French phrase must commence with that 
word, and the verb is made interrogative by means of a per- 
sonal pronoun placed after the verb, as if there was no noun, 
and agreeing with that substantive in gender and number. 
Ex.: Will your father send me that money? 
Votre iur& vrf enverra-t-il cet argent ? 

OP THE INTERRO-NEGATIVE VERBS. 

All that has been said of the interrogative verbs, may be ap- 
plied to the interro-negative verbs which are formed from the 
former by placing ne before, and pas or point after ; as, 

INDICATIVE. 



c 

£ 
<2 



" ne tisse-je pas ? 

ne tisses-tu pas ? 

ne tisse-t-il-pas ? 

ne tisse-t-elle pas ? 

ne tissons-nous pas ? 

ne tissez-vous pas? 

ne tissent-ils pas ? 
^ ne tissent-elles pas ? 



PRESENT. 
do I 

dost thou 
does he 
does she 
do we 
do you 
do they m. 
do they f. 



PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 



' n ? ai-je pas tissu ? have I 

n'as-tu pas tissu? hast thou 

n'a-t-il pas tissu? has he 

n'a-t-elle pas tissu? has she 

n'avons-nous pas tissu ? have we 

§^ n'avez-vous pas tissu ? have you 

n'ont-ils pas tissu? have they m. 

k n'ont-elles pas tissu ? have they f. 



am I 
art thou 
is he 
is she 
are we 
are you 
are they m. 
are they f. 

have I 
hast thou 
has he 
has she 
have we 
have you 
have they m. 
have they f. 



2. 



How is the French phrase construed when the nominative of an interroga- 
tive sentence is a substantive ? 



VERBS. 115 

The learner may carry on this verb through the conditional and 
compound tenses. It is all regulai except the past participle tissu, as 
above. 

Rule. — When the nominative of an interro-negative verb i& 
a substantive, it is placed first in French, and the verb made 
interrogative with a pronoun, as if there was no noun. 

Ex.: Will not your clerk go the custom-house ? 
Voire commis rfira-t-il pas u la douane T 

OF THE INTERROGATION WITH Esf-Ce qUC ? 

An affirmative or negative verb can be made interrogative 
by prefixing to it the expression : Est-ce que, signifying It is 
that. Thus, Est-ce quefenvoie ? signifies do I send? as well 
as envoy e-je ? Est-ce que je ne vais pas ? means, do I not 
go ? as well as ne vais-je pas ? 

This expression is used with every tense and person, and its 
effect is to make the verb interrogative without any other alte- 
ration. 

Sometimes this expression is made interro-negative; as, 
rfesi-ce pas que, is it not that, but then the doubt which the 
interrogation expresses is so great that it has almost an affirma- 
tive sense. Thus, n 'est-ce pas que vous irez d Paris, has 
nearly the same sense as, is it hot true that you will go to 
Paris ? 

Example of an Interrogative verb vjztk est-ce que. 

Est-ce que je march e ? Do Iioalk ? 

Est-ce qu'il chantera ? Will he sing ? 

Est-ce qu'il n'est pas alle la ? Has he not gone there 7 

Est-ce que vous ne paierez pas ? Will you act pay ? 

N'est-ce pas que vous resterez ? You will stay ; will you not 1 

Observation. — It must be remembered that in the first 
person of the present indicative of verbs of the first conjuga- 
tion, made interrogative by placing the pronoun after the verb, 
the final e must be made grave; as parleje, but as this person 
then resembles in sound the past tenses, parlais-je, and parlai- 
je, the interrogation with, est-ce que is preferred; as, est-ce 
que je parle, rather than parte- je. 

N. B. There are other instances in which this mode of ex- 
pression is also preferred, viz.: when the verb is a monosylla- 
ble ; as, est-ce queje dors ? do I sleep ? instead of dors-je, and 
generally with all the verbs of the fourth conjugation. 

Cannot an interrogation be made in a different way /—In what manner is it 
'then construed? — Is the expression est-ce que used m all the different tenses 
and persons 1 — Wltat are the instances in which the interrogation with tst-ce 
^ue is to be preferred ? 



118 VERBS, 

SECTION III- 

FORMATION OF THE TENSES OP VERBS, APPLICABLE TO ALL THE 
VERBS OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

Some of the tenses of verbs are formed from others that 
are called primitive. The knowledge of their formation, will 
be of great assistance to the memory, in all the regular conju- 
gations, and almost indispensable in the irregular verbs. 

The primitive tenses are the present of the infinitive y pre- 
sent and past participles, the three persons singular of the 
present of the indicative, and the preterit of the indicative. 
All the other tenses are formed from these. 

"The three persons plural of the present of the indicative 
are formed from the present participle, by changing ant into 
ons, ez, ent } as, from parlant, speaking, nous, parlous, vous 
parlez, Us parlent. 

The imperfect of the indicative, is formed from the present 
participle, by changing ant into ais ; as, parlant, je parlais. 

The future is formed from the present of the infinitive, by 
adding ai ; as, parler,je parlerai. But as the present of the 
infinitive ends in re in verbs of the fourth conjugation, the e 
mute is cut off, and ai added to the r. 

The conditional is formed from the future, by adding s, as, 
je parlerai, je parlerais. 

The imperative is formed from the present of the indica- 
tive., by simply omitting the pronouns. But the second per- 
son singular of the imperative of the verbs of the first conju- 
gation loses the s ; as, tu paries, parte ; Hous parlons, par- 
lous ; vous parlez, parlez. 

The present of the subjunctive is formed from the present 
participle, by changing ant into e mute ; as, parlant, que je 
parte. 

The imperfect of the subjunctive is formed from the preterit 
of the indicative, by changing ai into asse in verbs of the first 
conjugation, and by merely adding se, in the other conjuga- 
tions, the preterit of which invariably ends in s; aSjje parlai, 
quejeparlasse. 

N. B. All exceptions to the above rules will be found among the ir- 
regular verbs. 

Rule.— When the first person of a tense is obtained, the 
others can be very easily formed ; for all the verbs of the 

What are the tenses called primitive ?— How is the plural of the present of 
the indicative formed?— -How is the imperfect formed?— The future?— The 
conditional ?— The imperative ?— The present of the subjunctive ?— The imper- 
fect of the subjunctive ?— Can you, from the first person of a tense form all thst 
others. 



VERBS. 



117 



French language have the termination of their tenses as fol- 
lows : 





INDICATIVE. 


COND. 


IMPE- 


SUBJUNCTIVE, 


•esent 


imp. 


preterit 


future 


RATIVE. 


pres. 


imp. 


— 


ais 


— s 


rai rais 




e 


sse 


— 


ais 


— s 


ras rais 





es 


sses 


— 


ait 


— t 


ra rait 





e 


t 


ons 


ions 


— mes 


rons rions 


ons 


ions 


ssions 


ez 


iez 


— tes 


rez riez 


ez 


iez 


ssiez 


ent 


aient 


— rent 


ront raient 




ent 


ssent 



N. B. The singular of the preterit of verbs of the first conjugation 
ends in ai, as, and a, as was seen with parler. 

Remark 1. — The vowel which precedes mes and tes in the preterit 
of the indicative, and that which precedes t in the imperfect of the sub> 
junctive, must always be marked with a circumflex accent. 

Remark 2. — Two verbs deviate from the above rule in the second 
and third person of the present of the indicative, viz.: dire, to say; and 
faire, to do; which will be found among the irregular verbs. 

Direction. — When the first person of a tense is known, and the 
others are wanted, the first person must be written or pronounced, and 
then the others in rotation, with the only alteration of the termination 
as above. Knowing for instance that the first person of the preterit of 
the verbs venir, to come ; lire, to read : and dire, to say ; are, je vins^ je 
lus, je ais, the whole of the tenses will be as follows : 



je vms . 
tu vins 
il vmt 

nous Yinmes 
vous vinfes 
iis vinrent 



je lus 
tu lus 
illu* 

nous lu?nes 
vous lutes 
ils lurent 



je dis 
tu dis 
ildit 
nous dime* 

vous dites 
ils dirent 



SECTION IV. 

Remark. — In order to accustom the learner to put in practice the 
-above rules, the first person only of each tense will be given in the 
next conjugations. 

The compound tenses need not be put down, as the learner must by 
this time know how to use them. 

SECOND CONJUGATION IN J#, 
INFINITIVE. 
present, 
pun-jr to punish to be punishing 

PARTICIPLES. 

PRESENT. PAST. 

■pun-issant punishing 



|Ipw are the compound tenses of the verbs formed] 



pun-t Ml 1 . , , 



118 



VJERBS. 



INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 

je pun-i$ 1 punish I do punish I am punishing 

tu pim-£s thou punishest thou dost punish thou art punishing 

il pwa-it he punishes he does punish he is punishing 

nous pun-iss- we punish toe do punish we are punishing 
ons, &c. 



je pun-wsAis 
&c. 



IMPERFECT. 

1 was punishing 



Iused to punish 



je pun-ti 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 



Ipunished 



I did punish 



je pun-mAi 
&c 



je pun-iRAis 
etc, 



pun-is 



que je pun-issE 



FUTURE. 

I shall or will punish I shall or will be 
punishing 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 

I should pr would punish I should or would be 
punishing 

IMPERATIVE. 

punish (thou) do (thou) punish be (thou) pun- 

ishing 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

that I may punish that I may be punishing 



quejs pun-mE 
&c. 



IMPERFECT. 

that I might punish that I might be punishing 



More than 400 verbs ending in z'r, are conjugated like this 
verb. 

Write Jinir, to finish, and reussir, to succeed. This latter 
verb is important, as learners are liable to write it incorrectly, 
although it is regular. 

The irregular verbs of this conjugation are in a list by them- 
selves, 



VERBS. 



119 



THIRD CONJUGATION IN EVOIR. 

Remark. As the c is soft throughout the verbs ending in cevoir, it 
takes a cedilla when before o or u. 

INFINITIVE. 



PRESENT. 


Rec- evoir 


to receive 


to be receiving. 






PARTICIPLES. 






PRESENT. 




PAST. 


rec-et>ANT 


receiving 


rec; 


p > received. 






req 


-lie t. ) 




INDICATIVE. 








PRESENT. 




je veq-ois 


I receive 


I do receive 


I am 




tu re^-ois 


thou receivest 


thou dost receive 


thou art 


-5 

to 


il req-oit 


he receives 


he does receive 


he is 




nous rec-evoNS 


loe receive 


we do receive 


w e are 


vous rec-evEZ 


you receive 


you do receive 


you are 


<F 


ils reg-oi-uENT 


they receive 


they do receive 


they are 








IMPERFECT. 




je rec-evAis 


I was receiving 


I used to receive 


&c. 











je req-us 



je rec-euRAi 



je rec-e^RAis 



reg-ois 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

J received I did receive 

FUTURE. 

I shall or will receive I shall or will be receiving 



que je iceq-oivE 
que tu rec, -owes 
I qu'il re^-oivE 



CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 

I should or would 

receive 

IMPERATIVE. 

receive (thou) do (thou) receive 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

th?d I may 



I should or would be 
receiving 

be (thou) receiving 



that thou mayest 
that he may or let 
him 

I que nous re^-moNS that we may 
I que vous rec-eriEZ that you may 
qu'ils req-oivENT 






que je req-ussE 
&c. 



that they may or let 
them 

IMPERFECT. 

that I might receive 



that I may 

that thou mayest 

that he may 

that w e may 
that you may 
\that they may or 
I let them 



that I might be receiving 



120 



VERBS. 



There are but six regular verbs conjugated like recevoir; 
petcevoir, to receive (duties;) apercevoir to perceive, con- 
cevoir, to conceive; decevoir, to deceive; devoir, to owe, re 

^i^ZlAse that ought to be written, for although 
it is regular, learners are liable to write it incorrectly. 

N b! The irregular verbs of the third conjugation, have in the pre- 
sent of the infinitive, only the last syllable oir, or vovr; they are 
placed by themselves. 

FOURTH CONJUGATION, IN RE. 
INFINITIVE. 

_ , C to render 

present. Rend-re J tQ relurn 

PARTICIPLES. 

PAST. 

rend-ii, mas. rend-ue, fern. rendered 
INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 



to be rendering 
to be returning 



PRESENT. 

rend-ant rendering 



je rend-s 
tu rend-s 

il rend 

nous rend-ONS 
&c. 



je rend-Ais 
&c. 



I render 
thou renderest 

he renders 
we render 



I do render 
thou dost render 

he does render 
io e do render 



I am rendering 
thou art render- 
ing 
he is rendering 
io e are rendering 



IMPERFECT. 

lie as rendering 



I used to render 



je rend-is 
cue. 



jc rcnd-RA.i 
&c. 



je rend-RAis 
&c. 



PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

I rendered I did render 



FUTURE. 

I shall or will 
render 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 

I should or 

would, render 



I shall or will be 
rendering 



I should or ivoidd 
be rendering 



rend-* 

&c. 



render {thou) 



IMPERATIVE. 

do (thou) render 



be (thou) rendering 



VERBS. 121 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

*que je rend-E that I may render that I may be rendering 

&c. 

IMPERFECT. 

*jue je rend-issE that I might render that Imight be rendering 

N. B. The first person of the present of the indicative of 
verbs of this conjugation, is generally made interrogative, by 
means of the expression est-ce que. 

Write on this conjugation the verbs repondre, to answer; 
perdre, to lose. 

The irregular verbs are placed by themselves. 

SECTION V. 

OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS GF VERBS. 

There are different kinds of verbs, as, active, passive, 
neuter , pronominal, and impersonal ; but they are written like 
the conjugation to which they respectively belong, according 
to the termination of their infinitives. 

OF ACTIVE VERBS. 

A verb is called active in French, when it has an objective 
direct. It answers to the English transitive verb. 
All active verbs take the auxiliary avoir, to have. 

OF NEUTER VERBS. 

A verb is called neuter, when it cannot be followed by an 
objective direct. It corresponds to the English intransitive 
verb. 

Fifty-six out of more than 600 neuter verbs take the auxi- 
liary to be, etre. 

The Rule 1., given with the verb etre, respecting the past 
participle, which comes after that auxiliary, must be remem- 
bered. 

Those verbs which are marked with an asterisk take either auxi- 
liary, according to their sense. 

A LIST OF THE NEUTER VERBS, WHICH TAKE THE AUXILIARY to ft*. 

aborder* to land aller to go 

accourir* to run to apparaitre* to appear 

accroitre* to increase arriver to arrive 

How many different kinds of verbs are there in French? — What is an active 
verb in French ? — What is a neuter verb? — What auxiliary do all active verbs take 
in French 1— What auxiliary do the neuter verbs lake ? 

li 



122 


verbs. 




cesser* 


to cease 


mourir 


to die 


changer* 


to change 


naitre 


to be born 


choir 


to fall 


parti r* 


to set out 


convenir 


to agree 


parvenir 


to attain 


croitre* 


to grow, 


passer* 


to pass aioay 


d£cimper* 


to decamp 


perir* 


to perish 


decider 


to die 


provenir 


to come from 


dechoir* 


to decay 


rajeunir* 


to grow young 


decroitre* 


to decrease 


redescendre* 


to go down 


deg6nerer* 


to degenerate 




again 


demeurer* 


to stay or remain 


redevenir 


to become again 


descendre* 


to go doion 


re monter* 


to go up again 


devenir 


to become 


rentrer* 


to come in again 


disconvenir 


to deny or disown 


repartir* 


to set out again 


disparaitre* 


to disappear 


ressortir* 


to go out again 


(§chapper* 


to escape 


rester* 


to stay 


6 choir* 


to become due 


resulter* 


to result 


echouer* 


to run aground 


retomber 


to fall again 


6cIorc 


to blow 


mourner 


to return 


£mbellir* 


to grow handsome 


revenir 


to come back 


empirer* 


to grow worse 


sortir* 


to go out 


entrer* 


to enter 


survenir 


to befall 


expirer 


to expire 


tomber 


to fall 


grand ir* 


to grow tall 


venir 


to come 


intervenir 


to intervene 


vieillir* 


to grow old 


monter* 


to go up 






Remark. 


The verbs marked with an asterisk are used 






m 

their compound tenses with the auxiliary avoir, to have, when 
they merely express an action which took place, or will take 
place, but they take etre, to be, when they express the state 
resulting from that action. Thus, I will say, wonfrtre a de- 
meureen Italie, if I merely express that the action took place ; 
but I must say. monfrcre est deweure en Italie, if I mean 
that my brother is still in Italy, as I then express the state re- 
sulting from that action. 

N. B. Some of these verbs being irregular, they will be found con* 
jugated among the irregular verbs. 

OF PASSIVE VERBS. 

A passive verb is always formed with the auxiliary etre, to 
be ; throughout all the tenses and moods. It expresses an ac- 
tion that the nominative of the verb suffers, without expressing 
what is the agent, unless it is introduced by some preposition. 



jo suis persecute* 

lis furent battus par Pennemi 



EXAMPLE 



I am persecuted. 

they were beaten by the enemy. 



What are those which take etrel — Do not some of these take both avoir and 
etrel — What are the rules for using one of these auxiliaries in preference to the 
other?— Wnat is a passive verb 1 



VERBS. 123 

Rule. A passive verb must always be used in such a man- 
ner that it may correspond to an active verb, the nominative 
of which, is the agent of the action expressed by the passive 
verb, and whose direct objective is the nominative of the pas- 
sive verb. Thus, the above phrase, Us furent battus par Ven- 
nemi corresponds to, Ifennemiles battit, the enemy beat them. 

Should the agent of the action be unknown, the pronoun 
on, some one, should be used to represent it. 

This verb requires no other explanation except that the 
agreement between the participle and the nominative must be 
strictly observed. 

The learner may write a passive verb, if thought necessary by the 
teacher ; this will be done by copying the verb Ure, and adding a past 
participle. 

OF PRONOMINAL VEKBS. 

' Generally, a verb is called pronominal when it is conjugated 
throughout with two pronouns of the same person; as, je me 
flatte, I flatter myself. But verbs of this kind may be divided 
into thrse classes, viz., reflective, reciprocal, and essential 
pronominal. However, for convenience, the word pronominal 
is used for any of these three kinds of verbs. 

All these verb takes the auxiliary ttre, to be, (which con- 
veys to the mind the same idea that the verb avoir would, if 
used,) and have the pronouns added to them in the same man- 
ner ; as, se repentir, to repent ; which is given below, as the 
model of the conjugation. 

OF REFLECTIVE VERBS. 

A verb is reflective, when the action it expresses is performed 
by the agent upon himself, as in the above example. Je me 
flatte, I flatter myself. It may be easily perceived, that the 
English pronouns, myself, thyself, ourselves, yourself, and 
yourselves, are expressed in French as if they were the per- 
sonal pronouns me, thee, us, and you ; but in the third person, 
the pronoun se or s\ which is called reflective pronoun, is used 
for himself herseff and themselves, in order to prevent the 
equivocation which other pronouns of the third person would 
occasion. The place of these pronouns is determined by the 
rules on the personal pronouns, page 88. 

N. B. The manner in which the pronouns myself, thyself, &c. ought to be ex- 
pressed when they are nominatives to verbs, will be explained in the second 
part. 

Reflective verbs are by their nature divided into four classes 
since they are mere active transitive verbs. 

Wlxat is a pronominal verb ?— What js a reflective verb? 



124 VERBS. 

1. They are called direct reflect ive when the objective pro- 
noun is a direct objective. 

In this verb the past participle, in compound tenses, agrees in gender 
and number with the objective pronoun, according to the general prin- 
ciple that, will be hereafter laid down, that the past participle agrees in 
gender and number, with its direct objective only, and when that objective 
precedes it. 

Ex.: Jemeflatte, I flatter myself. 

Us se sont hues. They have praised themselves, 

2. They are called indirect reflective when the objective 
pionoun is an indirect objective. 

In this verb the past participle does not, in compound tenses, agree 
with the objective, according to the above rule, since the objective is 
indirect. 
Ex. : Je me rappele cette circonstance. 

I remember (recall to my mind) that circumstance ; 

Nous noussommes approprie son argent. 

We have appropriated to ourselves his money. 

3. They are called passive reflective in a peculiar construc- 
tion of the phrase, in which the object which is grammatically 
the agent of the action, and the nominative to the verb, not only 
does not. perform any action, but yet suffers that which is per- 
formed by an unknown agent. 

The past participle agrees in these verbs with the objective pronoun^ 
which is undoubtedly a direct objective. 

Ex. : Le ble se vend bien, Wheat sells well 

Vos marchandises se sont brulees, Your goods have been burnt, 

De pareils hommes ne se trouvent plus dansle monde. 

Such men are no longer found in the world. 

The literal meaning of these phrases is : Wheat sells itself well ; your 
goods have burnt themselves ; such men find themselves no longer in the 
world. 

This construction is very common in French, particularly when it 
conveys the idea of a habit or a generality, as in the former of these 
three phrases. But when it is used to express a shgle circumstance, 
the passive voice answers equally well. Thus the second phrase might 
be rendered by : vos marchandises cnt He bridles. 

4. They are called neuter reflective ) when they indicate only 
a state, a disposition of the subject. 

The past participle agrees, in compound tenses, with its objective >; 
which is considered direct to the verb, 

Ex. : II se meurt, He is dying. 

Elle s'est endormie She has fallen asleep. 

N. B. These last verbs are all indicated in dictionaries. 

What is a direct reflective veib ?— What is an indirect reflective ?— A passive 
reflective?— A neuter reflective ?— A reciprocal verb ?— An essential prono*ninaJ 
verb ?— How are the latter indicated in dictionaries ? 






VERBS. 125 

Besides these four sorts of reflective verbs, there is the impersonal 
reflective, which will be classed among the impersonal verbs. 

OF RECIPROCAL VERBS. 

If the action be performed simultaneously, by several persons'' 
towards one another, the verb that expresses it is called reci- 
procal. 

Ex. : Nous nous aimons, We love each other: 

Vous vous donnez des louanges. You give each other praises. 

The objective pronoun, as is shown by these examples, is 
either direct or indirect, which makes two sorts of reciprocal 
verbs, viz. : the direct and the indirect. These verbs have no- 
singular, and are conjugated like the plural of a reflective 
verb. If the sense of the sentence be doubtful, the words Pun, 
V autre, les uns, les autres, one another, or the adverb reci* 
proquenent, reciprocally, should be added to the verb. 

The phrase may also be construed with the aid of the pre- 
position entre, which gives to the verb a reciprocal sense, 
Entre loses the e and takes an apostrophe before a vowel. 

Ex. : lis s^enlr'aident, } 

Us s'aident Pun V utrc, > They help each other. 

Us s'aideiitreciproquement, 3 

OF ESSENTIAL PRONOMINAL VERBS. 

Verbs, thus called, are those which take the double pronoun, 
without any apparent proper meaning. They are, in that re- 
spect, the same as the neuter reflective verbs, with this dif- 
ference, however, that the latter may be used without this 
pronoun, in different acceptations, while the essential pronomi- 
nal verbs are always accompanied by the double pronoun, and 
make no sense without it ; for which reason they are called 
essential pronominal. 

Ex. : Je me repens, I repent. 

It would be very difficult for the learner to distinguish them, 
were it not that they are all carefully marked in dictionaries 
by the pronouns se or s 1 prefixed to the present of their in- 
finitives. 

N. B. These definitions, which may not be thoroughly understood 
by young learners, have been pUced here, to make those, whose minds 
are more mature, familiar with the properties of the pronominal verbs 
which are so different from the English. 

The pronominal verbs se repentir, which is an irregular 
verb of the second conjugation, has been selected as a model 
for all reflective, reciprocal, and pronominal verbs, as their 
pronouns are all placed in the same manner. 

Do all these verbs take the pronouns in the same manner ? 

11* 



126 



VERBS. 



But should the French verb be direct or indirect reflective, 
the English verb must be conjugated throughout with the pro- 
nouns myself \ thyself, &c. unless there is another sort of verb 
to represent it, as, je me fiatte, I flatter myself, je me leve, I 
rise. 

CONJUGATION OF A PRONOMINAL VERB. 

INFINITIVE, 



PRESENT. 

PAST. 



PRESENT. 

PAST. 



Se repentir 
S'etre repenti 



S* repentANT 
repenti m. -ief. 



compound. S'etant repenti 



(i) 

to repent 

to have repented 

PARTICIPLES. 

repenting 

repented, 
having repented 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 

J am 



to be repenting 

to have been repenting 



having been repenting 



© 

£ 



' Je me re- I repent 

pens 
tu te repens thou repentest thou art 

il se repent he repents he is 

elle se re- she repents she is 

pent 
nous nous we repent we are 

rebellions 
vous vous you repent you are 

r<> pen\ ez 
ils se re- they m. repent they m. are 

penient 
elles se n- they {.repent they f. are. 

penteni 

PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 



"Je me suis 
tu t'es 
il s'est 
elle s'est 
nous nous 

sommes 
vous vous 

£tes 
ils se sont 
elks se 

sont 



, repenti m. 
repentie/. 



repentis m. 
f repenties/1 



I have 
thou hast 
he has 
she has 
we have 

you have 



they m. have 
they f. huve 



l.l 



I do 

thou doest 
he does 
she docs 

we do 

you do 

they m. do 

they f. do 



I have 
thou hast 
he has 
she has 
we have 

you have 



they m. have 
they f. have 



>! 



Je me repentAis 
&c. 



IMPERFFCT. 

/ was repenting 



I used to repent 



Like what verb ought the pronominal verbs to be conjugated respecting- theii 
termination.-.? r ° 

(1) Although the pronoun used in the infinitive mood, be se, yet all the pro- 
nouns can be used in this mood, as they are intended to represent a person 
spoken of, as will be explained in the syntax. 



VERBS. 12T 



PLUPERFECT. 

Je m'etais repenti / had repented. I had been repenting 

&c. 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

Je me repent-is I repented I did repent 

&c. 

PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 

Je me fus repe.ni I had repented I had been repenting 

&c. 

FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 

Je me repentiRAi I shall or will repent I shall or will be repent- 

&c. ing 

FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

Je me serai repenti I shall or will have re- I shall or will have been 

&c. pented repenting. 

CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. 

Je me repentiRATS I should or would re- I should or would be re- 

&c. pent penting 

PAST. 

Je me serais repenti I should ox would have I should or would have 
&c. repented been repenting 

IMPERATIVE. 
Repens-toi repent (thGU) do (thou) be {thou) repenting 

repent 

repentons-nous let us repent lei us be repenting 

repentez-vous repent (ye or you) do (ye or be (ye or you) repenting 

yuu) repent 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT, 

que je me repentE that I may repent that I may be resenting 

&c. 

PRETERIT. 

que je me sois repenti that I may have re- that I may have been 

&c. pented repenting 

IMPERFECT. 

que je me repentissE that I might repent that I might be repent- 

&c, ing 

PLUPERFECT. 

que je me fusse repenti that I might have re- that I might have been 
&c. pented repenting 

All verbs which take the pronoun se or s 1 in their infinitive 
are conjugated like se repentir, with respect to the arrange- 
ment ot the pronouns; but their terminations follow the con- 



ISi VERBS. 

jugation to which they respectively belong by the termination 
of their in fin it' ve. 

Remember that they all take the auxiliary etre, to be. 

Writ? se rappelcr, to remember, and s^habiller^ to dress 
one's self, with the English affirmatively. 

PRONOMINAL VERBS INTKRROGATIVE OR NEGATIVE. 

These verbs are made interrogative or negative in the same 
way as all the preceding verbs. It must be observed that the 
n3gative ne is placed before the objective pronoun, in order 
that this pronoun may be immediately before the verb, accord- 
ing to the rule. 

EXAMPLES. 

NEGATIVE. 

Je ne me promene pas Idonotiva'k 

Je ne me suis pas promene I have not walked. 

The imperative of the negative pronominal verb is accord- 
ing lo the general rule. 

n^ te flatte pas ? do (thou) not flatter thyself 

n i n>_is fiattoiis pas let us not flatter ourselves 

ne vo :s flattez pas do not flatter yourself or yourselves 

Write the verbs se promener, to take a walk, and se from- 
per, to ma.;e a mistake, negatively. 

INTERROGATIVE. 

me punis-je ? do I punish myself? 

me siiis-je puni ? have I 'punished myself? 

Write the verbs se porter, to be (when speaking of the health) 
and s' evanouir, to faint, interrogatively. 

INTERRO- NEGATIVE. 

nc m'aperpois-je oas ? do I not perceive ? 

n*i iiid s.ti^-je pas apercu ? have I not perceived ? 

Write the verbs se coucher, to go to bed, and se perdre, to- 
rum one's self, interro-negatively. 

of the verb S'en aller, to go away. 

In the verb s'en aller, to go away, the word en, which sig- 
nifies hence, thence, is throughout the verb placed immediately 
befjre it; as, Je in? en vais, I go away ; Je in? en suis alle, 
1 have gone away. 

Where is the negative ne placed with the pronominal verbs used negatively? 
— How are they made interrogative 1— What is the difficulty in the verb a'en aller. 
Jo tp away? 




VERBS. 129 

The imperative is used thus : 

AFFIRMATIVE. 

va-t'en go (thou, away 

allons-nous-en let us go away. 

allez.voas-en go [ye or you] away 

NEGATIVE. 

ne t'en va pas do [thou] not go away 

ne nous en allons pas let \s not go away 

ne vous en allez pas do [ye or you] not go away . 

The verb s'en alter is used in French even for the simple- 
verb to go, when the place where the nominative of the verb 
is going is not expressed. 

Ex. : He is going, H s'en va, 

OF THE IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

These verbs are thus called, because they express actions 
that are not performed by persons. They are only used in the 
third person singular. The English pronoun it, that precedes 
them, is expressed in French by il. They correspond in the 
two languages. 

They must be conjugated in the third person, like the vcr'ss>. 
to which they belong by their terminations. 

They take the auxiliary avoir, to have ; but the verbs il ar- 
rive, it happens, and il s'ensuit, it follows that, are conjugated 
with tft% to be. 

EXAMPLES. 

II nei°:e it snows II geie it freezes 

II suiiit it suffices II a pan* it has appeared 

N. B. The verb il import e } it matters, is also used in the third person, 
plural ; as, quHmportent vos menaces ? what signify your th.ie.ats? 

OF THE IMPERSONAL NEUTER VERBS. 

There are many neuter verbs which are sometimes made 
impersonal for the sake of imparting elegance to the style. 
The impersonal pronoun il is then used as the nominative to 
the verb, and the substantive which is the real nominative is, 
placed immediately after the verb. . 

EXAMPLE. 

II entra deux hommes, Two men entered. 

Instead of deux hommes entrtrent, which is equally proper, but is not 
as ofien used. 

Where is en placed in the imperative ?— What are impersonal verbs I— What 
are the impersonal neuter verbs ? 



130 VERBS. 



OF THE IMPERSONAL PASSIVE VERBS. 

According to what was said of the passive verbs, page I23> f 
the English phrases in which the nominative of a passive verb 
is not the direct objective to the same verb, when the phrase is 
expressed by the active voice, cannot literally be translated 
into French. 

Let us take this phrase: I have been permitted to go out ; 
which will b9, if the verb is made active : Somebody permitted 
me to go o'tt. According to the English syntax, me is the ob- 
jective of the preposition to understood, and not that of the 
verb ; and if we consult the French syntax, me or to me will 
be tne indirect objective to the verb. As the conditions neces- 
sary to use a passive ver > are not therefore fulfilled, this Eng- 
lish phrase must be translated into French in a different 
manner. 

One of the modes corresponding in French with this Eng- 
lish construction is the impersonal passive verb, thus called 
because the impersonal pronoun il is used as the nominative 
to a passive verb. With the assistance of this verb, the above 
phrase could be translated into French, by // m?a tie permis 
de sortir, that is to say, it has been permitted to me to go out. 

OF THE IMPERSONAL PRONOMINAL VERBS. 

These verbs are the passive reflective verbs used in the third 
person singular, with the impersonal pronoun?'/, and requiring, 
like the neuter pronominal, the real nominative placed imme- 
diately after the verb. 

EXAMPLE. 

II s'est donneune grande bataille, A great battle was fought. Instead 
of une grande bataille s' est donnee, or une grande bataille a ete donnie t vf hich 
construction would be likewise proper. 

Should the nominative to this verb be itself expressed by a 
verb, it should be preceded by the conjunction que. The 
English phrase is construed in the same manner. 

Ex. : 77 se trouva que now n 1 avians pas assez a" 1 argent. 

It happened, or it was found (it found itself,) that we had not money 
enough. 

One of the impersonal verbs, viz. falloir, to be necessary, requiring 
particular explanations, will be placed in a chapter appropriated to that 
purpose. 



What are the impersonal pronominal verbs \ 



~ 



VERBd* 131 



SECTION VL 

OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Some French verbs are irregular in some of their tenses and 
terminations. They will be given in separate lists. 

Remark 1. The learner must remember the rules for the 
formation of the tenses, page 116, and apply them to the verbs 
placed in the lists, in order to ascertain whether they are regu- 
lar or irregular ; as all the tenses have been r?ut clown for con- 
venience sake, except the conditional, the imperative, and the 
imperfect of the subjunctive, which are invariably formed as 
above directed ; yet the imperative of the verb savoir will be 
found in the list, because it is irregular. 

Remark 2. The learner will derive a greater benefit by 
writing the irregular verbs than by simpiy learning them. 
But in either case all the tenses must be given. 

Remark 3. When the participle present of a verb ends in 
yant, the y which precedes the termination, is preserved in all 
the tenses and persons formed from that participle ; but it is 
changed into i before a mute e, according to the general rule. 

Remark 4. The feminine of all participles past can be 
formed, when wanted, by adding a mute e; but the feminine 
of absous, and dissous, is absoute, and dissoute, -absolved, 
dissolved, and resous, resolved, (changed,) has no feminine. 

Remark 5. In some of the irregular verbs, the first person 
present of the indicative ends in e mute. This e must be made 
grave in the interrogative way; as, Cueilleje? Do J gather? 
Couvre-je! Do I cover? But it is better to say. Esi-ce que 
je cueille ? Est-ce que je couvre ?-— See the observation fol- 
lowing the interrogative verbs with Est-ce que, page 115). 

Remark 6. In forming the imperative mood of the same 
verbs, the 5 of the second person singular of the present of the 
indicative must be omitted ; thus, from tu couvres, thou cover- 
est, form couvre, cover, (thou,) and not couvres. 

Remark 7. Those of the irregular verbs in which the first 
person of the present indicative is a monosyllable, are made 
interrogative in that person with est-ce que ; as, Est-ce que je 
mens ? Do I lie? Esi-ce que je ne courspas ? Do I not run ? 

What are the verbs called irregular?— What is said of the tenses formed from 
the present participle ending in yant 1 — How is the feminine of the past partici- 
ple formed ?— What is said of the verbs which end in e mute in the first person 
present of their indicatives ?— What of the verbs that are monosyllables in the 
same person ? 



REMARKS ON THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 



132 VERBS. 

Remark 8. Verbs followed by the letter (e) in their infini- 
tives are those which take the auxiliary etre ; and those mark- 
ed with (e or a) take either etre or avoir. — See the remark 
following the list of the neuter verbs, page 122. The letters 
{s. u.) signify seldom used. 

Remark 9. Verbs preceded by se or s' are pronominal. 

IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION-! 

They are alter, to go; and envoy er, to send ; which are con- 
jugated at length, pages 108 and 112; renvoyer, to dismiss, to 
send back ; which is conjugated like envoy er, puer, and tisser; 
the irregularities of which are mentioned page 107. 

Trie French irregular verbs are far from being so difficult to learn as 
they at, first appear. Their number can be considerably reduced by 
observing that those marked with the letters (u. s.) are principally old 
words scarcely ever used, and whose places are supplied by new ones. 
The learner must nevertheless make himself acquainted with them, as 
he may meet them in translating. But these being taken off, the fol- 
lowing directions will remove a great part of the trouble that might 
otherwise have been anticipated. 

In more than two-thirds of the irregular verbs, the difficulty is limit- 
ed to the knowledge of five radical parts, as will be seen by the fol- 
lowing explanations ; and the most irregular verbs among the other 
third, have but four irregular variations, besides the five radical parts. 

The five radical parts that must invariably be known, are the pre- 
sent of the infinitive, present and past participles, the first person singular 
of the present of the indicative, and the first person singular of the preterit 
definite. 

The compound tenses are invariably formed from the past participle 
preceded by the auxiliary. 

The conditiond being formed from the future by adding s, and the 
imperfect of the subjunctive, from the preterit of the indicative, by adding 
se, both without exception, will give no further trouble. 

The imperfect of the indicative being formed from the present parti* 
eiplo, by changing ant into ais, (with the only exception of je savais, 
I was knowing, which is not derived from sachant,) and the imperative 
being formed from the present of the indicative, by leaving out the 
pronouns, (with the only exception of sache, sachons, mchez, know, &c, 
which are not derived from je sais,) he, will make two other tenses of 
easy formation. 

What does the letter [e\ signify after the infinitive ?— What do the letters [e 
or a] mean?— The letters [s. u.] ?— W T here are the irregular verbs of the first 
conjugation placed ?— What are the derivative verbs 1 — What art the five radical 
parts that it is indispensible to know, in order to be well acquainted with an irre- 
gular verb ?— Is there any exception to the formation of the conditional^— Of the 
imperfect of the subjunctive ?— How many exceptions of the formation of the im- 
perfect and of the imperative 1 — What are they 1 



VERBS. 133 

Now remain the future, and the present of the indicative, and sub- 
junctive. 

The future in verbs of the fourth conjugation is formed from the 
present of the infinitive, by cutting offe mute and adding ai, with the 
exception of jeferai, 1 will do, fvomfaire. 

In the second conjugation also, the future is formed from the present 
of the infinitive, but by simply adding ai. Six verbs are excepted : 
courir, to run, je courrai ; mount, to die, je mourrai ; acquerir, to ac- 
quire, facquerrai ; cueillir, to gather, je cueillerai ; tenir, to hold, je 
tiendrai ; and, venir, to come, je viendrai. 

In the third conjugation the future is likewise formed from the 
present of the infinitive, but by changing oir into rai. Eleven verbs are 
excepted: asseoir, to sit, fassierai, or, j'assei-rai ; surseoir, to super- 
cede, je surseoirai ; dechoir, to decay, je deckerrai; pouvoir, to be able, 
je pourrai ; savoir, to know, je saurai; voir, to see, je verrai; prevoir, 
to foresee, je prevoirai ; pourvoir, to provide; je pourvoirai; valoir, to 
be worth, je vaudrai; prevaloir, to prevail, je prevaudrai ; and, vouloir, 
to be willing, je vaudrai. 

Which makes eighteen futures irregularly formed. 

The present of the subjunctive is formed from the present participle, 
by changing ant into e mute. There are eleven exceptions in the sin- 
gular, and only two in the plural number. Therefore this tense may 
be divided into singular and plural. The eleven exceptions of the sin- 
gular are: mourant, dying, que je meure ; acqusrant, acquiring, qua 
j'acqu'Jre ; tenant, holding, que je tienne ; venant, coming, que je 
vlenne ; mouvant, moving, quejemeuve; pouvant, being able, que je 
puisse ; nalant, being worth, que je vaille; voulant, being willing, que. 
je veuille ; prenant, taking, que je prenne ; fesant, doing, que jefasse; 
buvant, drinking, que je boive. 

Always form the third person plural from the third person singular 
by simply adding nt, without exception. 

As f3r the first and second persons plural, they are invariably formed 
from the present participle as above, with the exception of, que nous 
puissions, que vous puissiez, that we or you may be able, not derived from 
pouvant, and, que nous fas sions, que vous fassiez, that we or you may do, 
not derived from fesant. 

The present of the subjunctive of the verb dechoir, which has no pre- 
sent participle is que je dechoie. 

The present of the indicative, will also be divided into singular and 
plural. The firsc person singular being known, the second and third 
will be easily formed according to the different terminations which 
follow : 

First person e ds ts cs s x 

Second person es ds ts cs s x 

Third person e d t c t t 

N. B. Je puis, I can, is only used in the first person. Je peux alone 
s has the second and third persons. 

How many exceptions to the formation of the future 1— What are they? — 

How ma7»y exceptions to the formation of the present of the subjunctive? — 

1 What are they ?— How do you form the second and third persons singular of the 

present of the indicative, when the first ends in e ! — When it ends in ds ? — Ts? 

Cs?—Sl—X? 

12 



134 VERBS. 

The plural of the present of the indicative is formed from the pre- 
sent participle, by changing ant into ons, ez, ent, without exception 
for the first person ; with two exceptions for the second person, viz. :■- 
vousfaites, you do, and, vous dites, you say, which do not correspond 
to fesant and disant, and ten exceptions for the third person ; cor- 
responding with the present participle as follows : mourant, dying, ite 
meurent ; acquerant, acquiring, Us acquierent ; tenant, holding, Us tien~ 
ncnt ; venant, coming, Us viennent ; mouvant, moving, Us meuvent ; 
pouvant, being able, Us peuvent ; voulant, being willing, Us veulent ; 
prenant, taking, Us prennent ; fesant, doing, Us font; buvant, drinking, 
Us boivent. 

It must be understood that derivative verbs are conjugated like the 
primitives, from which they are formed. 

As method in study is of great assistance to the memory, the learner 
is advised often to peruse the above directions. He will be the 
more inclined to do so, if he considers that besides the five radical 
parts that are essential to be known in all the irregular verbs, there are 
but forty-four irregularities, viz. eighteen futures, fourteen presents of 
the subjunctive, and twelve presents of the indicative. 

What are the exceptions to the formation of the first person plural of the pre- 
sent indicative ? — Of the second ?— Of the third. 



VERBS. 



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136 VERBS* 

DERIVATIVES FROM THE FOREGOING VERBS. 

Derivative verbs are those which have been formed from 
others by prefixing one or more letters or syllable to the wordy 
and which only differ from the primitive verb by the additional 
letter or syllable. 

1. Endormir, to lull asleep ; s'endormir, to fall asleep ; se 
rendormir, to fall asleep again; redormir, to sleep again; 
rendormir, to lull asleep again; desendormir, (s. u.) to rouse. 

2. Dementir, to give the lie. 

3. Departir, to divide ; (s. u.) repartir, (e or a) to set out 
again, to reply. 

4. Consentir, to consent ; pressentir, to foresee ; ressentir, to 
resent. 

5. Desservir, to clear the table. 

6. Ressortir, (e or a) to go out again. 

7. Rouvrir, to open ag tin ; entr'onvrir, to half open ; 
couvrir, to cover ; recouvrir, to cover again ; decouvrir 3 £# 
discover. 

8. Mesoffrir, to underbid. 



VERBS. 



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VERBS. 



DERIVATIVES OF THE FOREGOING VERBS. 



1. Rebouillir, to boil again ; debouillir, (s. u.) to try the 
dye by boiling ; ebouillir, (s. u.) to overboil, to boil away ; 
parbouillir, (s. u.) to parboil; these two last are only used in 
their compound tenses. 

2. Accourir, (e or a) to run to ; concourir, to concur ; dis- 
courir, to discourse; encourir, to incur; parcourir, to run 
over ; recou rir. to have recourse ; secourir, to assist. 

3. S'enfuir, to run away. 

4. Revetir, to invest, to clothe ; se devetir, (s. u.) to take off 
clothes. 

6. Requerir, (s. u.) to request ; conquerir, to conquer (a 
country,) which is only used in the preterit definite, imperfect 
of the subjunction and compound tenses; reconquerir, (s. u.) 
to conquer again, and s'enquerir, (s. u.) to inquire, which are 
only employed in their compound tenses; querir, (s. u.) to 
fetch, only used in the infinitive, as after oiler, to go. 

7. Accueillir, to receive, to entertain; recueillir to col- 
lect. 

8. Tressaillir, to start, to leap ; saillir, to project, (in archi- 
tecture,) used only in its third persons. 

9. S'abstenir de, to abstain; appartenir, to belong; con- 
tenir, to contain; detenir, to detain; entretenir, to main- 
tain, (to keep) ; obtenir, to obtain; retenir, to retain; sou- 
tenir, to uphold, to support. 

10. Avenir, to happen, and mesavenir, to take an ill turn, 
are obsolete. The verbs arriver and mesarriver are used 
instead of them. Circonvenir, to circumvent ; contrevenir, 
to contravene ; convenir de, (e) to agree ; convenir a, to suit; 
devenir, (e) to become of; disconvenir, to disagree ; inter- 
venir, ,'e) to intervene ; parvenir, (a) to attain ; pievenir, to 
prevent, to warn ; provenir, to proceed ; reccnvenir, to form 
a demand ; (law term,) redevenir, (e) to become again ; se 
ressouvenir, to remember ; revenir, (e) to come back ; se sou- 
venir de, to rem ember ^ to mind ; subvenir a, to supply ; sur- 
venir, (e) to befall. 

IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 
THIRD LIST. 

Benir, to bless, has two past participles; the regular bent, 
benie, blessed, and an irregular benit, benitc, used for hat- 

What is the observation accompanying bouiUir?— flow is the future of 
the verb acguerir, pronounced ?— That of mounr ?— That of courir ?— How is the 
French verb to gather speJt and pronounced ?— How is the syllable en pro- 
nounced in certain of the tenses of venir and tenir 1— How is in in the preterits. 
vf the same verbs pronounced ?— What is the irregularity of benir ? 






VERBS. 139 

lowed or holy ; as, pain benit, hallowed bread ; eau benite r 
holy water. 

Fleurir, signifying to flourish, has its participle present 
irregular, Jlorissant ; and the imperfect, JlorissaiU and 
jiorissaient. Rejleurir, signifying to flourish again, has the 
same irregularity as fteurir. 

Hair to hate, is pronounced in two syllables, as the i is 
marked with a diaeresis; but the following persons are spelt 
and pronounced as a compound vowel, ai having the sound 
of e. Je hais, tu hais, il hait, I hate, t :ou hatest, he hates, 
and the imperative hais, hate {thou.) This verb has the first 
and second persons plural of the preterit of the indicative, and 
the third person singular of the imperfect of the subjunctive, 
spelt with a diaeresis, instead of a circumflex accent, thus, 
nous haiw.es, vous haites, qiCU halt. 

Faillir, to fail, is only used in its preterite definite, im- 
perfect of the subjunctive, and compound tenses; as,jefaillis y 
faifailli. &c. 

Defaillir, to grow faint, is only used in the imperfect, 
preterit, and compound tenses, and in the plural of the present 
of the indicative; as, nous defaillons, je defaillais, jedefail- 
lis, fax defailli. 

Ou'ir, to hear, is only used in the preterit of the indicative 
imperfect of the subjunctive and compound tenses. Tou'is^ 
que fouisse, fai out. 

Gesir, to lie (down,) is obsolete and no parts of this verb 
are in use, except il git, he lies; nous gisons, we lie; il 
gisait, he was lying ; and gisant, lying ; and these are used 
only in dignified style; as, ci git, here lies, in monumental 
inscriptions. 

Ferir, to strike, ) are only used in the pre- 

o '• * i A * i >sent of the infinitive, and 

Surgir, to land, or to rise { ^ yery seldom _ ' 

What is the irregularity of fleurirl — That of hair I 



140 



VERBS. 



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141 



[1] Asseoir is very seldom used as an active verb. It is generally reflec- 
tive ; as, s^asseoir, and means to sit down. 

[2] Mouvoir is an active verb in French. It is used only in the present of 
the infinitive. Se mouvoir, to move one's self, is used in the third persons of 
the present indicative. To move, is generally expressed by remuer. 

[3] Pouvoir. The piesent of this verb expresses th»- tnree different Eng- 
lish verbs, / am able, I can, I may ; thou art abl?, thou canst, thou may est, 
&c. Thus the past te nses will answer for I was able, I could, I might, &c. 

In the first person, present, indicative, peux cannot be used interrogatively. 
The word puis is then employed, puis-je ? am / able ? can I. ? may I ? 

Although Je puis orje peux, correspond to J can or J may, yet / cannot 
and I may not, are not » xpressed in the same manner, as well as could not 
and might not. The verb can or could, when negative, is translated by pou- 
voir in the negative way ; but may not arid might not require the negation to 
fall upon the following infinitives. Example. I cannot go y je ne peux pas 
aller ; I may not go, je peux ne pas aller. 

Although the future and conditional are spelt with two rr's, one only is pro- 
nounced. 

This verb is also used as follows : puisse-je ! may I ! puisses-iu ! rnayest 
thou ! puisse-t-il ! puisse-t-elle ! may h« ! may she ! puissions-ncus ! 
may we ! puissiez-vous ! may you ! puissenUils I puissent-elles I may 
they! 

N. B. More will be said of this verb, in the chapter of this part of speech* 
in the second oart of the Grammar. 

[4] S avoir conveys the idea of the knowledge of something that is ac- 
quired by learning, by being informed, or told ; it excludes the idea of ig- 
norance. It is therefore never applied to peisons, but only to things, wiietiifi 
is understood that they have been learnt. It translates the English verb to 
know, followed by how and an infinitive ; as, Bo you know how to dancel 
Savez-vou? danser ? How is not expressed in French, unless it has the sense 
of which way ; then the emphasis falls upon hew ; as, J do not know how 
to go out, Je ne sais pas comment, sortir. It is also followed by the conjunc- 
tion that, and a verb, as, / know that he is sick, je sais qu'il est malade. In 
je sais, tu sais, il sait, ai is pronounced like e. 

Je ne saurais is often used for I cannot, but instead of signifying complete 
impossibility, as, je ne puis pas, it conveys the idea of an indirect obstacle ; 
for instance, je ne saurais luiparler, alludes more to a w^ant of decision than 
a want of possibility. More will be said of this verb in ihe sec( nd part of 
this work. [See the verb connaltre among the irregular verbs of the fourth 
conjugation.] 

[5] The verb valoir corresponds throughout all its moods, tenses, and per- 
sons, to the verb to be, followed by the adjective worth. 

[6] This verb is used in the second person plural of the imperative mood. 
That person is veuillez which corresponds to the English expressions, be so 
kind or so good as to. It is generally followed by the word bien, ar«d is the 
exact translation of the English imperative please, which cannot be translated 
by the verb plaire, as will be explained with that verb. Ex, veuillez bien 
m'ecouter, please to listen to me. 



What is said of assseoir, to sit "? — Of mouvoir 1— Of pouvoir ?— What is the dif- 
ference between / cannot and I may not ? — How is the future of pouvoir pro- 
nounced and spelt ?— Is not that verb used in a particular tense in exclama- 
tions?— What is the proper meaning of sauoir 1— What is said of valoir ?— Has 
pouloir, to be willing, an imperative ? 



142 



VERBS. 



DERIVATIVES OF THE FOREGOING VERBS. 



I. Serasseoir, to sit dovm again; rasseoir, to sit again. 

4. Emouvoir, to stir up, to soften, is only used in the present 
of the indivative and subjunctive, and in its compound tenses. 
Promouvoir, to promote is only used in the present of the 
infinitive and compound tenses; and demouvoir, to make one 
desist, only in the present of the infinitive. 

8. Revoir, to see again ; entrevoir, to have a glimpse of. 

10. Depourvoir, to deprive, is only used in the present of 
the infinitive.. 

II. Equivaloir, to be equivalent ; revaloir, to return like 
for like. 

IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 
SECOND LIST. 

Apparoir, to appear, and comparoir, to make one's appear- 
ance, are both law terms, and used only in the infinitive. 
Apparoir makes it appert, it appears. 

Choir, to fall, is an old verb, seldom used, and only in the 
present of its infinitive, and past participle chu, chue. 

Coadouloir^ to condole, is obsolete, and used only in the in- 
finitive present. 

Echoir, to fall to, to expire, is now used only in commercial 
transactions, for notes, bills, &c.,and m the following instances: 
il echoit, sometimes spelt it echel, and always pronounced as 
if spelt thus: Us echoient or echeent ; in its preterit, fichus, 
future and condiuonn], fccherrai, fccherrais, and compound 
tenses formed from the past participle echu, echue. Its pre- 
sent participle is echeant. 

Falloir, to be necessary, will be found in a section by itself. 

Seoir, to be fit, is only used in the third persons of the pre- 
sent, imperfect, and future of the indicative, conditional, and 
subjunctive present ; as, ilsied, Us sieent, il seyait, Us seyaientj 
il siera, <fc, quHl si°e, $c. 

Messeoir, to be unbecoming (in dress), is used like seoir. 

Ravoir, to have again, is only used in the infinitive. 

Souloir is an old verb signifying to be accustomed to, and 
only mentioned here, as well as many others, in order to make 
the lists complete. 

"What is said of echoir l 



VERBS. 



143 






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144 VERBS. 

CONTINUATION" OF NOTES ON IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE FOURTH 
CONJUGATION. 

him. We cannot literally translate if you please, but we say, sHl yous 
plat, if it or that pleases you. It is the same with the expressions, if he 
or she pleases, if we or they please, &c. 

[3] In the three persons singular of the present of the indicative of all 
these verbs at. are pronounced e ; it is the same with their derivatives. 

(4) Se taire, to remain silent, to hush, is of more general use. 

(5) Jefais, tufais, ilfait, are pronounced as if spelt, jeft, tu ft, ilfl. 
Many grammarians spell the present participle faisant, and all its compounds, 
nous faisons, jefais ais, &c. yet they pronounce/at as though at were e mute. 
The desire of doing away with one more exception has been the occasion of 
spelling these tenses with e mute, and that improvement is most generally 
adopted. 

(6) ConnaHre, to know, signifies to be acquainted with. It is applied 
both to persons arid things, but to the latter only when it means that we have 
become familiar with them by seeing or hearing them, &c. ; as, / know that 
lady, that picture, that tune, je connais cette dame, ce tableau, cet air. It 
is never followed by an infinitive, but is sometimes connected with a verb by 
the conjunction que, that, and then signifies, a perception acquired by guess- 
ing ; thus, je connais quHl n'a pas d"' argent, means, that various circum- 
stances make me judge that he has no money, while je sais, would signify, / 
know, by what I have been told. 

N.B. In some phrases both savoir and connaHre may be used without al- 
tering the sense. This happens when the verb to know has the sense of both 
verbs ; as, je sais or je connais la musique, I know music. 

(7) Na'.tre answers both for the verb to be and for the word born, and 
exactly corresponds in all its tenses and persons to the same tense and person 
of the verb to be, followed by born. 

(8) Resolu means resolved, decided, and resous, which has no feminine, 
means resolved into. 

DERIVATIVES OF THE ABOVE VERBS. 

1. Decondre, to unsew ; reeondre, to sew again. 

2. Remoudre, to grind again. 
Obs. emoudre and remoudre, to grind, to grind again 3 

(knives) are now obsolete; aiguiser, to whet, or repasser, to 
set, are used instead of them. 

3. Absondre, to absolve, and dissoudre, to dissolve, are con- 
jugated like resoudre, butthev have neither preterite indicative 
nor imperfect subjunctive. Their past participles are absous, 
absoute, dissous, dissoute. 

4. Apprendre, to learn; desapprende, (s. n.) to unlearn ; 
rapprendre, (s. u.) to learn again; comprendre, to under- 
stand; deprendre, (s. u.) to part; entreprendre, to undertake; 
s'eprendre, (s. u ) to kindle, to be bewitched with ; se me- 
prendre, to be mistaken; reprendre, to retake, to reply; sur- 
p rend re, to surprise. 

What observation is made on rompre? — On vivre? — On plairel — On taire? — On 
faire?— On connaitre? — On naitrel — How is the compound vowel ai pronounced in 
the singular of the present indicative of these^veibs ?— What is the difference 
between resolu and resousl 




VERBS. 145 

B. Abatttfe, to pull down; rebattre, (s. u.) to beat again; 
^eombatire, to fight; debattre, to debate; s'ebattre, (s. uj to be 
merry ; embattre, to cover a wheel with bands of iron; rabat- 
tre, to abate. 

6. Admettre, to admit; commettre, to commit ; compromet- 
tre, to expose, to compromise ; se demettre, to put out of joint, 
to resign ; depromettre, (s. u.) to break a promise ; emettre, 
to emit ; omettre, to omit ; permettre, to permit ; promettre, 
to promise ; remettre, to replace, to deliver ; sonmettre, to sub- 
mit ; transmettre, to transmit ; s'entremettre, to intermeddle. 

7. Corrompre, to corrupt ; interrompre, to interrupt. 

8. Poursuivre, to pursue, to prosecute ; s'ensuivre, to ensue, 
(impersonal.) 

9. Revivre, to come to life again ; survivre, to survive. 

10. Complaire, to comply with ; deplaire, to displease. 

12. Contrefaire, to counterfeit, to mimic ; defaire, to undo; 
redefaire, to undo again ; refaire, to do again ; satisfaire, to 
satisfy ; surfaire, to exact. 

Forfaire, to trespass ; malfaire, to do ill ; mefaire, to misdo ; 
parfaire, to perfect, are only used in the present of the infini- 
tive, and in the compound tenses. 

13. Abstraire, to abstract ; attraire, (s. u.) to entice. These 
two verbs are scarcely ever used, except in the present of the 
infinitive, and the compound tenses. 

Distraire, to divert theattention of; extraire, to extract; por- 
traire, (s. u.) to draw a portrait ; rentraire, tofinedraw ; re- 
traire, (s. u,) to redeem; soustraire, to subtract. 

14. Apparaitre (e or a) to appear ; comparaitre, to appear; 
disparaitre, (e or a) to disappear; reparaitre, to appear again; 
and repaitre, (s. u.) to feed. 

15. Meconnaitre, to disown ; reconnaitre, to recognize, to 
acknowledge. 

16. Accroitre, (e or a) to increase ; decroitre,(e or a) to de- 
crease; recroitre, to grow again; surcroitre, (s. u.) to grow 
out. 

17. Renaitre, to be born again, to be revived, to spring up 
This verb has no past participle, and therefore no compound 
tense. Surnaitre, to grow upon. 



13 



146 



VERBS, 



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VERBS. 147 



DERIVATIVES OF THE ABOVE VERBS. 

3. Red ire, to say again. 

The following verbs make disez instead of dites, in the se- 
cond person plural of the present indicative and imperative ; 
-as, vous contredisez, &c. 

Contredire, to contradict ; dedire, to unsay ; interdire, to 
forbid; medire de, to slander ; and predire, to foretell. 

5. Circonscrire, to circumscribe ; decrire, to describe; ins- 
crire, to inscribe ; prescri re, to prescribe ; proscrire, to pro- 
scribe; recrire, to write again; souscrire, to subscribe; 
transcrire, to transcribe. 

6. Eli re, to elect ; reelire, to re-elect ; relire, to read over 
again. 

7. Sourire, to smile. 

8. Reboire, to drink again ; s'emboire, to imbibe (in 
painting.) 

11. Accroire is only used in the infinitive, and preceded by 
Jaire ; as^faire accroire, to impose upon credulity. 

Decroire and meeroire to disbelieve are now obsolete. 

12. Reluire, to glitter. 

14. Convaincre, to convince. 

15. 16. The verbs traduire and joindre are the models of 
the conjugation of a number of verbs. The learner will find 
no difficulty, after having written them, in conjugating like 
traduire the verbs : 

Condnire, to conduct; construire, to construct/ cuire, 
to cook, to bake; deduire, to deduct; detruire, to destroy; 
decuire, to make, (sweetmeats) give ; enduire, to do over, to 
lay on with ; induire, to induce ; instruire, to instruct ; intro- 
duire, to introduce; reconduire, to reconduct ; reconstruire, 
to build again ; recuire, to neal, (metals) ; reduire, to reduce; 
seduire, to seduce. 

And like joindre ; adjoindre, to associate; astreindre, ta 
astringe ; atteindre, to reach; aveindre (s. u.) to takeout; 
ceindre. to gird; complaindre, (s.u.) to complain ; conjoindre, 
(s. u.) to join together ; contraindre, to constrain, to compel ; 
craindre, to fear ; deceindre, (s.u.) to ungird ; disjoindre or 
dejoindre, to disjoin; depeindre, to depaint ; deteindre, to lose 
its colour; enceindre, (s.u.) to enclose; enfreindre, to vnr 
fringe, to transgress ; enjoindre, to enjoin, t&charge; eprein^ 
dre, (s. ii.) to squeeze ; eteindre, to extinguish, to put out, 
(fire); etreindre, to bind close; feindre, to feign; geindre* 

What is observed on the verb vaincre 1 — What is said of some of the derive 
4ives of dire 7— What are the verbs conjugated like traduire and joindre ? 



148 VERBS. 

(s. u.) to whine ; oindre, to oint; peindre, to paint ; plaindr^ 
to pity ; poindre, to dawn ; (is only used in the present oi the 
infinitive and the third person singular of the future ;)ratteindre ? 
to catch again; rejoindre, to join again; repeindre, to 
.paint again; restreindre, to restrain; reteindre, to die, (to 
tinge) again; reteindre, to extinguish again; teindre, to 
die, (to tinge.) 

IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
THIRD LIST. 

Braire, to bray, is only used in the following tenses and 
persons : // brait, it brays, Us braient, they bray ; il braira T 
Us brairont, il brairait, Us brairaient. Ai are sounded e. 

Bruire, to roar, has only the third persons of the im- 
perfect, il bruyait, Us bruyaient, and is very seldom used. 

Cir conch e, to circumcise, has no present participle and no 
imperfect in either the indicative or subjunctive. The other 
tenses are conjugated like confire ; but its past participle i& 
circoncis. 

Clore, to close, is used in the singular of the present of 
the indicative, je clos, tuclos, il clot, the future and condi- 
tional,^ clorai, &c. ; and in the compound tenses, with its past 
participle, clos, close. 

Dcclore, to unclose, enclore, to enclose, reclore, to close 
again, renclore, to enclose again; are used like clore, but very 
seldom. 

Eclore, (e) to blow (as a flower) is only used in the third 
persons of the same tenses. 

Forclore, to debar, (a law term,) is used only in the infini- 
tive and compound tenses. 

Deconjire, to discomfit, occire, to slay, and soudre, to solve, 
are very old, and used only in their infinitives, and that very 
seldom. 

Frire, to fry, has its past participle frit, and is only used 
in the singular of the present of the indicative, jefris, tu fris, 
il frit, in the future and conditional,^ frirai, &c. and in 
the compound tenses. The tenses that are wanting are sup- 
plied by prefixing the verb faire to the infinitive, as je jis 
frire. 

Sourdre, to spring, (as waters,) is also very seldom used, 
and only in the third persons of the present of "the indicative : 
H sourd, Us sour dent. 

Tistre, to weave, has only the compound tenses formed 
from its past participle tissu. The other tenses are supplied 
by tisser, as marked page 1 14. 

What is sai<J of frire ? These questions rrxay he, carried to a greater 

extent. 



PARTICIPLES. 149 

CHAPTER VI. 

OF THE PARTICIPLE, PREPOSITION, ADVERB, CONJUNCTION, 
AND INTERJECTION. 

SECTION I. 
OF THE PARTICIPLE. 

The participle is a part of speech which partakes of the pro- 
perties both of an adjective (as it generally performs its func- 
tion) and of a verb (as it has its signification.) 

There are two participles, as was seen with the verbs, viz. 
the present, as, interessant, interesting; and the past, change, 
changed. 

The agreement of the participles, being one of the difficul- 
ties of the French language, will be explained in the Second 
Part of this Grammar; but as it will be indispensable to use 
some participles in the course of the Exercises that will pre- 
cede this explanation, the following rules will be given in this 
place. 

Rule 1. The present or past participle, when used as an 
adjective, must agree in gender and number with the noun 
which it qualifies. It is always considered an adjective when 
it precedes the noun in English, or when it comes after the 
auxiliary etre, to be. Ex. : une voix tremblante, a trembling 
voice ; une assiette cassee, a broken plate. 

Rule 2. The past participle, which is used with the auxi- 
liary avoir, to have, can agree but with its direct objective, 
and yet only when this direct objective precedes it. Thus we 
will write nous avons mange des pommes, we have eaten 
apples ; but les pommes que nous avons mangees, the apples 
that we have eaten. 

N. B. Remember besides what was said of the formation of the femi- 
nine and plural of the participles, page 70, and the remarks on the, 
past participle after etre f to be, page 100. 

EXERCISE. 

The learner must fcnow how to write a verb ending in gen 
Those ladies will not stay ; you have frightened them* I left himiu 
an embarrassing situation. His obliging words consoled me. We 
have been deceived by the persons whom we had obliged. I am pay- 
ing the men who have cleaned the street. They have not swept it. 
The servant, has washed those cups, and she has not wiped them. His 

"What is a participle ? — When do the participles agree with the noun ? — When? 
can they be considered adjectives !— What is. said of the past participle used wttk 
ihe auxiliary avoir?, to have ? 

13? 



150 



PREPOSITIONS. 



astonishing bravery deserves our admiration. They employ us, but 
they have not paid us yet. I will not employ her, because she stam- 
mers, and besides she is not well recommended. Why do you not 
sweep my room now ? He was relating to us an interesting history. 



SECTION II. 
OF THE PREPOSITION. 



The preposition (so called from being placed before the 
word which it governs) serves to connect words with one an- 
other, and to show the relation between them. 

Various explanations of the preposition will be found in the* 
Second Part of this Grammar; but some observations will be 
made here. 

Remark. The word which comes after a preposition is 
called the objective to that preposition. Ex.: ce livre est 
pour mon pire. That book is for my father. Monpere is 
the objective of the preposition pour. 

Rule. English prepositions govern the present participle ; 
but trench prepositions govern the present of the infinitive 
except en, which corresponds to by, and to while, when fol- 
lowed by a present participle. Ex. : sans parler, without 
speaking ; en allant, bv going, or while going. 

The prepositions apres, after, and pour, for, require to be 
followed by the compound of the present of the infinitive in 
French ; as, after eating, apres avoir mange ; for speaking, 
pour avoir parle. Apres never comes before the present of 
the infinuive ; but pour does, and has then the sense of in or- 
der lo ; as, pour alter, in order to go. 

Before is expressed by devont, when it relates to place : and 
tywant, when it relates to time; as, before the house, devant 
la maison ; before Monday, avant lundi. Avant is followed 
•gom an inlinilive 5 as > oxwnt Waller, before 

intlF^fht f eP ° Sit , i0n ™'-° r int0 > is orally translated 
into French by dans, when it signifies within; if not, by en 

be^iS Wd m IrTnf ** T* imme f^ l y befb '' e * substantive, as will 
De explained in its place, but is, in these cases, supplied by en. 

h,rZ WardS 5? translated b Y vers, when there is motion : and 
by envers when it is used in the sense of with regard to as 

pTuvres. PaTiS > V6rS ^^ t0Wards the Poolers ^ 



iSiillili^sa. 



ADVERBS. 15 1 

Many English verbs are followed by a preposition which 
determines their sense; as, to go out, to come in, to meet 
with, to take off, &c. These verbs and prepositions are ge- 
nerally translated into French by a verb that answers for both 5. 
as, sortir, entrer, rencontrer, oter, &c. 

These verbs are always found in dictionaries ; but, as the learner 
might overlook them, it has been judged proper to spell in italics, in 
the course of this work, all prepositions which are represented in French 
by the verb corresponding to that which they follow in English. 

EXERCISE. 

The learner must know how to write the verbs; whose penultimate ends in & 
mute. 

Your master will not leave you without explaining to you all these 
rules. She returned without giving us your compliments. I found 
your grammar while lopking for the other books. I will seal those let- 
ters while listening to the conversation. He will pay you well by giv- 
ing you that diamond. He left the room, after scolding us. He called 
them in order to examine their books. He was sent to a dark room, 
for raising the blinds before the prayers. They do not weigh the goods 
before the officers. Why does he throw the blame upon his^ brother T 
lam bringing up his children. I will pa y you in silver. You are 
walking towards the precipice. Will he not throw my letter into the 
box ? Do not speak of that accident before those ladies. 



SECTION III. 

OF THE ADVERB. 

The adverb is a word which is joined to a verb, an adjective, 
and sometimes to another adverb, to modify these parts of 
speech, or to express some circumstance attending them. 

Adverbs are divided into different classes. There are ad- 
verbs of time, place, order, quantity, quality, and manner t 
affirmation, negation, doubt, com.parison f and interrogation ? 
all of which will be further illustrated in the Second Part. 

Rule 1. The French adverbs, when they modify verbs 
are always placed after them, except, however, the adverbs of 
place and those of interrogation, which occupy in French the 
same place that they have in English. 

In compound tenses, the adverb precedes the participle ; but 
adverbs ending in ment arc indifferently placed before or after 
the participle, and the adverb davantage r more, or some more,, 
is invariably used after. 

What; is an adverb ?— What is the? place of an adverb in a phrase ? 



162 ADVERBS, 

Ex. : We seldom go with these boys. 

Nous allons rarement avec ces petits-gar$ons. 

Why do you sing ? Pourquoi chantez-vous 7 

They have spoken well. lis ont blen parle. 

Rule 2. The adverbs jamais, never ; nullement, by no 
means, not at all; nulle fart, no where, require the verb* 
which they modify to be preceded by the negative ne. Jamais 
means ever, when it follows a verb which is not preceded by 
ne; but it signifies never, when it is used by itself. 

Ex. : You never speak. Vous ne parlez jamais. 

N. B. Remember what was said of toujours and jamais accompany^ 
ing past tenses, page 94. 

Rule 3. The restrictive adverb but is translated into 
French by the negative adverb ne before the verb, and the 
conjunction que after. 

Ex. : I have but ten dollars. Je n'ai que dix dollars. 

Rule 4. En, hence, thence ; y, there, here, require to be 
placed, like the personal pronouns, immediately before tha 
verb, except when the verb is in the imperative affirmative. 

Ex. : I was going there. Ty allais. 

N. B. The above adverbs, en and t/, might be considered as pronouns,, 
as they cannot be used, unless the name of the place has been express- 
ed before. 

Rule 5. Adverbs of quantity, when followed by substan- 
tives, must be connected with them by the preposition de, as 
will be seen in the following list ; but they are not followed 
by de when they only modify an adjective or a verb. 

The verb that follows an adverb of quantity in the sam& 
phrase, must be preceded by the preposition pour, for. 

Ex. : He has too much money to be ruined. 
\Il a trop rf 1 'argent pour Lire ruine. 

■ She is less proud now. Elle est moins jiere <S prisenL 
He speaks little. II parle pen. 



n What does jamais require ?— What does it mean when joined with an affirma-- 
tive verb ?— How do you express but in French when it has the sense oionly?-~~ 
What is said of en, hence, and y, there, <fcc, ?— How are adverbs of quantity coa~ 
nected with nouns ?.— How with, verbs \ 



ADVERBS. 158 

A LIST OF THE ADVERBS OF QUANTITY. 

(murk r„mh\^^$ hGWmuch 



I many 
Beaucoup de <[ very much 



/-. _s , ( how much 
Combien de < , 

( now many 



\ a great deal of , (so much 

y a great many ( so many 



trop de j 



too much ,( as or so much 

too many autan e \ as or so man y 

(used in comparison.) 



d $. ^^ s assez de enough 

\ few plus de more 

un pea de a little , , (no more 

1 tip runs rip < 



i ( 5m2 Zifi/e moins de 

guere e £ ou ij ew davantage 



, , ( no more 
ne....plus de < , 

' . -J no J any more 



less 

more, some more 



Remark 1. Trop, before an adjective or adverb, stands 
for too. 

Un peu, before an adjective, signifies rather ; as, un pen 
long, rather long. 

Outre requires the verb, to be preceded by the negative ne. 

Assez, enough, is, like the other adverbs of quantity, placed 
before the noun, adjective, or adverb. 

When more, or some more, is not followed by a noun or ad- 
jective, it ought to be translated by davantage- 

Remark 2. Almost all English adverbs ending in ly, and 
formed from an adjective, generally correspond to a French 
adverb ending in ment, and also formed from the correspond- 
ing adjective. Ex. : present, presentement, present, presently. 
But as French adverbs are not formed as regularly as the.Eng- 
lish are, and the rules that could be given have many excep- 
tions, the use of the dictionary will be the best way to learn 
them. 

exercise. 

The learner must have written one of the verbs the penultimate syllable of 
which ends in e acute. 

How are you to-day ? I think that I shall never be well. I possess 
but three houses, and I am not rich enough to bring up my son like a 
prince. I always hope that he will repeat the text of the sermon, but 
he will not repeat it any more. He went into the Temple, and thence 
expelled the sellers. 1 gave up my house to him, and he went to live 
there with a great deal of pleasure. Your service is rather long, and 
I have but little time, as I have not dined yet. Here we are too well 
to change. I always thought that he had so many friends. She is less 
conceited now, because she is invited no where. We seldom dance, and 

* _____ — r ; 

What do they take when followed by an adjective? 



154 CONJUNCTIONS. 

we shall certainly not waltz. Do you prefer to stay here ? I have 
shown my jewels, but I have never lent them. You are too prudent to 
lend them. She gave up but to her lather. He has a little money, but 
he is rather selfish. 

SECTION IV. 

OF THE CONJUNCTION., 

The conjunction is a word which serves to connect words 
and sentences together. 

There are various kinds of conjunctions which require a 
longer explanation than can be given in this First Part. 

Rule. The conjunction ?/, wHch is si in French, and s* 
only before il and ils ) is followed in English by the future and 
subjunctive, or the tenses corresponding to the French condi- 
tional ; but t requires to be followed in French by the present 
of the indicative instead of the future, and the imperfect of the 
indicative instead of the other tenses. 

Ex. : If he will eat, sHl mange. 

If you would be here, si vous etiez ici. 

Remark 1. The word that, when a conjunction, is always- 
expressed by que or q-u? before a vowel. 

Remark 2. The conjunctions parceque, because; puisque f 
since ; and the preposition jusque, until ; lose the e, and take 
l&ii apostrophe before a vowel or h mute. 

JJ. B. Jf usque is sometimes gpejt jusques in poetry, before a vowel. 

OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections are words which serve to express a sudden? 
emotion of the mind. Almost every feeling has an appro- 
priate interjection, such as, helas } alas ; fi y pshaw ; chut^ 
bush; &c. 

EXERCISE. 

The learner must be acquainted with verbs ending in eer. 

If you will keep that secret, I will give you so much money that yoxt 
will pay all your debts. If you would drown, your dog I would certainly 
kill you. Hush ! you talk too much. Do you not think that he is 
crazy ? Those sectarians think that God is continually creating ; but 
the belief of their opponents is that he is only preserving. A little 
walk would recreate your mind. If you will not listen to the sermon, 
leave the church. Pshaw ! you are always talking. If they would be 
more attentive I would reward them, I have not been well until 
to-day. 

What is a conjunction ?— What tenses of the verb is the conjunction, «, if t 
followed by ?— What is an interjection? 



PART II. 



CHAPTER I. 

SYNTAX, OR WORDS CONSIDERED IN THEIR CONSTRUCTION 

OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

SECTION I. 

OF GENDER. 

1. Substantives expressing some qualification or situation of 
men and women, are not the same in the feminine as they are 
in the masculine ; but their feminines are generally formed as 
if they were adjectives. 

Ex.: Acteur, actrice, actor, actress ; parent, parente, male and female 
relation; Stranger, £trangere, male and female stranger. 

N. B. Several substantives ending in eur have been classed amongst 
the adjectives, page 75, according to the classification adopted in 
French grammars. 

2. It must be observed that nouns ending in e mute, are the 
same whether applied to men or women, but their gender is 
indicated by an article or adjective, as, un esclave, une es- 
clave, a slave ; un sauvage, une sauvage, a savage ; un ere- 
ole, une Creole, a Creole. 

Enfant, child, which is used for both genders, must be 
classed among these. 

3. Yet there are nouns which are indifferently applied to 
men and women, and even the gender of which does not 
change, whether masculine or feminine. They are, 



Auge, 


masc. 


angel. 


philosophe, 


masc. 


philosopher. 


appui, 


masc. 


support. 


personne, 


fern. 


person. 


auteur, 


masc. 


( author. 
( authoress. 


poete, 


masc. 


< poet. 
\ poetess. 


bSte, 


fern. 


fool. 


pratique, 


fern. 


customer. 


caution, 


fern. 


security. 


successeur, 


masc. 


successor. 


diable, 


masc. 


( a passionate person, or one who succeeds in difficult 
\ undertakings. 


dupe, 


fern. 


dupe. 


t^mom, 


masc. 


witness. 


£crivain, 


masc. 


writer. 


traducteur, 


masc. 


translator. 


gage, 


masc. 


pledge. 


tyran, 


masc. 


tyrant. 


monstre, 


masc. 


monster. 


victim e, 


fern. 


victim 



Can a noun which, means some qualification or situation of men be applied to 
women ? — Ho such masculine words correspond with the feminine ones ? — Is 
there a difference in the manner of expressing- a savage man and a savage woman* 
— What words are like this ? — What are the words applied both to men and 
women .' 



156 LENDERS* 

and many other expressing professions generally followed by 
men only, such as general, geometre, sculpt eur, &c, as well 
as those which being in the class of common names, are ap-^ 
plied to persons onJy by extension; such as gage, pledge; 
appui, support, &c. 

There is no example of imposteur, impostor, used in the 
feminine. 

4. Names of trade have both genders, and their feminines 
are formed in the same mariner as that of adjectives ; as, hor- 
loger, clockmaker ; horlogere, clockmaker's wife, &c. 

5. By a very singular exception, the only reason for which 
is their etymology, the words estafette, express ; sentinelle, 
sentinel ; vedette, sentinel on horseback : vigie, a man on the 
look out. are feminine, although they are never applied but to 
men. 

6. Some substantives, applied to things, have two genders, 
although they have but one meaning ; this is occasioned by 
the different circumstances in which they are used ; as fol- 
lows. 

Amour, love, is masculine in the singular and feminine in the plural^ 
\mless when meaning little genii. 

Chose, thing, which is feminine, becomes masculine when imme- 
diately preceded by quelque. The adjective which qualifies quelque 
chose, something, must be masculine. 

Couleur, colour, is feminine, but when joined to other words to form 
a sort of compound noun, which expresses some particular colour, it 
becomes masculine, according to the rule, that all names of colour are 
of that gender. Couleur de chair, flesh-colour, is then masculine. 

Delice, delight, is masculine in the singular and feminine in the plu- 
ral, according to the Latin etymology. 

Gens is a plural masculine substantive signifying people, (a certain 
class of people.) But the adjective or adjectives which immediately 
precede it, are made feminine plural for euphony. Yet both the adjec- 
tives and substantives are still considered as masculine, for if another 
adjective follows them, or if these words are represented by a pronoun, 
that adjective or pronoun is masculine plural : thus, all the wicked peo* 
pie, is translated by toutes les mechanics gens. But should the adjective 
which immediately precedes gens be one of those which end in e mute 
in the masculine, then, as the feminine of such adjectives is the same 
as the masculine, every word would preserve the masculine gender ; 
tons les honnetes gens, ail the holiest people. 

Orge, barley, is feminine ; but it was formerly masculine, and has 
preserved this gender in orge monde, pealed barley, and orge perle, the 
same, when coarsely ground. 

Orgue, organ, (an instrument) is masculine in the singular and femi- 



When is amour masculine and when feminine ? — When is chose? — Couleur ?— 
Delice ?— Orge ?— Orgue ?— What is said of gens, people?— What effect does the 
difference of gender produce in the words that are both masculine and femi- 
nine ? 



GENDERS. 



157 



riine in the plural ; on account of which grammarians have not yet de- 
cided how to express, in French, one of the finest orgcnis. 

Other substantives have two acceptations, and are masculine 
in one, and feminine in the other. 

A list of these words is placed hei'e, but in order not to 
make the difficulties appear greater by repeating them, the 
words whose genders follow the general rules, have been ex- 
cluded from it; as, aile, a man who helps; masculine of 
course, and aide, assistance ; feminine, because it ends in e 
mute. 



MASCULINE. 




FEMININE. 


eagle 


aigle 


the roman standard 


a barbary horse 


barbe 


beard 


red breast 


berce 


cow parsnip 


privateer 


eapra 


caper 


wrist (in anatomy) 


carpe 


carp 


scroll 


cartouche 


cartouche, cartridge 


sink 


cloaque 


ancient aqueduct 


C stage coach, or 




( notch 
(fat soio 


< packet boat on a 
( river 


coche 


coup!e(male and female) couple 


couple (tivo) 


croat 


cravate 


cravat 


crape 


crepe 


pan cake 


space 


espace 


space (in printing) 


example 


exemple 


a model for writing 


drill 


foret 


forest 


C large tun, thunder- 
< bolt (in elevated 
( style) 


foudre 


{ thunderbolt (in or- 
\ dinary style) 


hoar frost 


givre 


snake (in heraldry) 


register's office 


greffe 


graft 


guide 


guide 


rein 


gules, in heraldry 


gueule 


( mouth of certain 
\ animals [stone 


turnsol 


heliotrope 


heliotrope, precious 


hymn (in general) 


hymne 


hymn ( Christian) 


interline 


interligne 


lead (in printing) 


rainbow 


iris 


sprig-crystal 


china varnish 


laque 


gum-lac 


lily , flower de luce 


Lis or Lys 


Lys (a river) 


book 


livre 


pound 


( hat or muff of 
I otter hair 


1 outre 


otter 


handle 


manche 


( sleeve, The British 
( Channel 



What does un crepe mean 1 — What does une crepe mean ? — Un guide ? — line guidtf 
-Le livre? — Une livre ? — Le manche ? — La manche ? 

u 



158 



GENDER. 



mSmoire 

merci 

mode 

mole 

moufle 

moule 



office 

ombre 

paque 

parallele 

pendule 

Perche 

periode 

pique 

pivoine 

plane 

poele 

ponte 

poste 

pourpre 

pretexte 

quadrille 

reclame 

relache 



scolie 

serpentaire 

sexte 

solde 

somme 

souris 

tour 

triomphe 

vague 

vase 

vigogne 

voile 



MASCULINE, 
bUl 

thanks 

mood 

mole, pier 

a tackle of pullies 

mould 
f a musical work, a 
J collection of en- 
) gravings by the 
{ same engraver 

office, business 
( a game at cards, 
( a fish 

Easter Sunday 

comparison 

pendulum 

Perche (a province) 

the highest pitch 

spade at cards 

gnat snapper 

plane-tree 

stove, canopy 

punto (at cards) 

post 

purples, a fish 
pretext 

— (a game at cards) 

calling back a hawk 

relaxation 

livery coach 
( scholium (in ma- 
( thematics) 

serpentarius 

sexius 
( balance of an ac- 
\ count 

nap, slumber 

smile 

turn, trick 

triumph 

vague, airy plains 

vase 
( cloth of Vigon's 
\ hair 

veil 



mlmoire 

merci 

mode 

mole 

moufle 

moule 

ceuvre 

ceuvres, pi. 

office 

ombre 

paque 

paral ele 

pendule 

perche 

periode 

pique 

pivoine 

plane 

poele 

ponte 

poste 

pourpre 

pretexte 

quadrille 

reclame 

relache 
remise 

scolie 

serpentaire 

sexte 

solde 

somme 

souris 

tour 

triomphe 

vague 

vase 

vigogne 

voile 



FEMININE. 

memory 
mercy 
fashion 

(a surgical word) 
mitten 
muscle (a shell-fisk) 

action 

{ the works of an 
\ author 
pantry, larder 

shade 

passover 

parallel 

clock 

pole, perch [a fish) 

period 

pike, grudge 

peony (a flower) 

plane (a tool) 

frying pan 

laying of eggs 

letter or horse post 

a dye 

Roman virile robe 

— (a dance) 
( catch word (in 
( printing) 

shelter (for a ship) 

coach-house 

scholium (in philo- 
logy) 

snake-root 

sexte 

pay 

sum, load 
mouse 
tower 
trump 
wave, surge 
mud, slime 

Vigon 



What does un mode me an? — La mode! — Un moule! — line moule! — Le poele! — La 
tele ! — Un poste ! — La ponte ! — Un somme ! — La somme ! — Un touris ? — Une souris ? 
Un voile ! — Une voile ! 



poele 

— Un tour ! — La tour ! 



NUMBER, 159 

EXERCISE. 

The irregular verb alter, to go, page 108. 

The actress who performed yesterday is not a stranger, for your 
cousin, Elizabeth, assures me that she is the manager's cousin. My 
cousin is a child, and she spoke thus to you, because you were listen- 
ing to her conversation. I shall not, for the future, be the dupe of her 
reports. Madame Dacier was the translator of Homer, and Mad. de 
Genlis, the ancient governess of Louis Philippe, was the author of se- 
veral works. Call him a fool if he will go there. The flesh colour is al- 
ways a pale rose colour. That woman is an excellent witness ; why does 
she not go to the police ? I am going to speak to that man ; he will be 
my security. That man was an excellent customer ; but he has gone to 
our neighbour's store. She will be the only support of his old age. He 
was spoiled by the bad example of those wicked people. All the good 
people will tremble. Did they not admire the excellent organs of our 
churches ? The first organ which the French possessed was sent by the 
Emperor Constantin Copronyme to Pepin in the year seven hundred 
and fifty-seven. What is the difference between a stove and a frying- 
pan in French ? That book weighs a pound. He concealed the handle 
of his poniard in his sleeve. He wis shut up in the tower for his bad 
tricks. Her veil was not thick enough to conceal her smile. The sail of 
our boat was torn and a wave carried away our helm. Those children 
are going to your garden. 

SECTION II. 
OF NUMB E R. 

Rule 1. Proper names of men do not take the sign of the 
plural, when they are used to designate several persons of the 
same name, without any idea of forming a class of them, as, 
les deux Corneille se sont distingues, the two Corneille have 
distinguished themselves. 

Remark. Examples may be found in elegant writers, of plural ar- 
ticles used before proper nouns, which cannot be attributed to more than 
one person, and which remain singular. This construction, which is a 
mere matter of choice, gives more force to the style, and is even a 
beauty which ought not to be lavishly used 5 as, le merite des Homere, 
des Virgih, des Milton. 

Rule 2. When proper names are applied to a class of 
individuals of the same name, without excepting any of them ? 
that proper noun becomes, in some degree, common, and ad- 
mits the plural form ; as, les Bourbons, les Stuarts, les douze 
Cesars. So likewise, when a proper noun is used to denote 
character, although it be the name of a single person, if it is 
applied to all those who have similar qualities ; as, les Nerons, 
les Aristotes, &c. 

WJien &> proper names of men take the sign of the plural ? 



160 



NUMBER. 



N. B. This elliptical construction is to be avoided with proper 
names preceded by the article, such as, Le Tasse, &c. 

Remark. — Some substantives common are used only in the 
singular, and others only in the plural. This peculiarity arises 
from their being scarcely ever wanted in any other but the 
respective numbers in which they are used. They are gene- 
rally the same, both in English and in French. Ex.: or, gold; 
courage, courage ; tiseaux, scissors, &c. 

Many of the singular words are, as well as in English, used 
in the plural, when we speak of different kinds ; as, les laines 
les plus grossieres, the coarser wools. 

The following words are used in different numbers in the* 
two languages. 

Words singular in French and plural in English, 



avoine 

compensation 

cresson 

lie 

linge (1) 

math£matiques 

morale 

mgtaphysique 

optique 

politique 

pneumatique 

pourpre 

rougeole 



sing. 



plur. 



oats 

amends 

cresses 

dregs 

clothes 

mathematics " 
ethics, morals " 
metaphysics 
optics 
politics 
pneumatics 
purples, (a fever)" 
measles " 



Words used in the plural in French, and in the singular in English,. 

abois (2) plural bay singular 

accordailles " ceremony of signing ar- 
ticles of a marriage " 

affaires, (3) " business 

aguets, (4) " watching 

alentours " neighbourhood 

armoiries " coat of arms 

assistans " audience 

atours " attire " 

broussailles " thicket 

broutilles " brushwood 

What is the peculiarity of avoine, oats ?— Of linge, clothes ?— Of politique, po- 
litics ?— Of affaires, business ? 



(1) The word linge is used for all clothes that require washing. 

(2) Abois is scarcely ever used except with itre ; as, etre aux abois, to be at 
bay, to gasp. 

(3) Affaire is used in the singular, and means affair. 

(4) Aguels is used in the phrase, etre aux aguets, to lie in waft* 



NUMBER. 



161 



confins 

connaissances, (1) 

d 6 comb re s 

depens 

ebats, (2) 

entrefaites, (3) 

£pinards 

£pousailles, (old) 

nancaides 

fonts (de bapteme) 

frais 

fune rallies 

hardes 

immondices 

instances 

limites 

manes 

meubles (4) 

nippes 

obsequies* 

relevailles 

tenebres 

versettes 



plural boundary singvlw 

knowledge " 

rubbish * 
expense, (damages) " 
*port 

meanichile " 

spina ge a 

" wedding " 

" betrothing " 

" font, (baptismal) " 

expense " 

" funeral " 

clothes " 

filth 

" entreaty u 

boundary " 

" ghost, (shade) u 

u furniture u 

small w earing apparel u 

f funeral u 

il churching of a woman il 

" darkness u 

" brush a 



Remark 2. — There are nouns which have both numbers 
in French, and are only used in the singular or plural in En- 
glish, and vice versa. A list of these words will follow. 

alms, plur. 
good, property, sing, 
property, sing. 
goodness, kindness, sing. 
habitual kindness, sing. 
ashes, remains of the dead, plur, 
remains of the dead, plur. 
the hair, sing. 
advice, sing. 
news, sing. 
pains, plur. 

people, the nation, the low peo- 
ple, sing. 
nations, plur. 
tear, sing. 



aumone, sing, aumones, plur, 

bien, sing. 

biens, plur. 

bon:e, sing. 

bontes, plur. 

cendre, sing. 

cendres, plur. 

cheveu, sing, cheveux, plur. 

eonseil, sing-, conseils, plur. 

nouvelle, sing, nouvelles, p^r, 

peine, sing, peines, plur. 

peuple, sing. 

peuples. plur. 

. pleur, sing, (obsolete) 



What is the peculiarity of connaissances, knowledge 1 — Of epinards, spinage 1 — 
frais, expense ? — Of meubles, furniture ? 

(1) Connaissances means all that a person knows. In the singular it means 
perception or acquaintance. 

(2) Ebats is seldom used except in this familiar phrase ; prendre ses ebats, to 
.take one's sports. 

(3) Entrefaites is used as follows : sur ces entrefaites, in the meanwhile, 

(4) Meuble, in the singular, signifies a piece of furniture. 



14* 



162 NUMBER. 

pleurs, plur. t . . . tears, plur. 

poesie. sing. .... poetry, (the art) sing. 

poesies, plur, . . . . poetry, (the collection of thg 

works of an author,) sing. 

progres, sing progress (of things), sing. 

progres, p/wr. .... pro gress (of persons), plur. 

richesse, sing, richesses, plur. . riches, plur. 

Rule. All words borrowed from the ancient and foreign 
languages, which are still spelt with their original orthography, 
do not take the sign of the plural; except, debet, owed balance ; 
echo, echo ; placet, petition ; quolibet, jest ; and, recepisse, re- 
ceipt, (for papers.) 

N. B. M. Castil Blaze, the author of The Modern Musical Dictionary , 
forms with an s the plural of all the musical nouns, borrowed from the 
Italian ; as, deux pianos, deux duos, trios, &c. Many composers have 
followed his example, although the French grammarians spell these 
plural nouns without an s. 

Rule. Words accidentally employed as substantives, do 
not take the sign of the plural; as, les comment, les non, les 
quatre, §c, the hows, the noes, the fours. 

EXERCISE. 

Envoper, to send, as directed page 112. 

The Bourbons have not preserved their throne. You have the vows 
of the three Williams. I will send you the history of the twelve Cae- 
sars. The people never forget the Washingtons and the William 
Tells. Why does he send the doctor to his house? Because his little 
girl has the measles. Did he give you two receipts for the papers that 
I sent to him ? I expect that the washerwoman will send my clothes be- 
fore Saturday. Do not leave those ashes in your sand-box. She lies 
in wait, do not disturb her. I have already repeated to you that I have 
my business, and that your entreaty will be vain. The knowledge of 
that man is very extensive, and his progress is indeed astonishing. 
Why do you give my oats to your horse ? My furniture is not very 
elegant. She stole all my clothes and all my books, except Boileau's 
poetry. The funeral of the General cost a great deal of money. I 
like the quartetts of Beethoven. Your whys and hows are very rude. 
I have the two duplicates of your letter, but I will not pay the deficits. 
He is eating some spinage. 

OF COMPOUND NOUNS. 

Compound nouns are those formed by two or three words 
connected together by hyphens; as, arc-en-ciel, rainbow; 
chien-marin, sea-dog. 



What are the nouns which do not take the sign of the plural ?— What is * 
compound noun ? 



NUMBER. 163 

• They do not always correspond in the two languages ; on 
the contrary, some English compound nouns are expressed in 
French by single words, and single words by compound nouns* 

Ex.: Pompier, fireman petit-maitre, dandy 

libraire, bookseller eau-de-vie, brandy 

cahier, copy or writing-hook porte-huiiier, castor, &c. 

There are also many instances of English compound nouns* 
expressed in French by separate words, such as windmill, mou- 
lin a vent. New rules, fixing their arrangement and showing 
how to distinguish them, will be found in the chapter of the 
articles. 

Rules to form the plural of French compound nouns, will 
be given in the following paragraphs: but it must be observed, 
that they refer only to those of which the different parts are 
united by hyphens; for 

In all nouns which are written in a single word, whatever 
be tneir composition, the plural form falls upon the last syl- 
lable : yet the word gentilhomme, nobleman, is spelt in the 
" plural gentilshommes. 

As all compound nouns are found in dictionaries, the only 
difficulty will be that of forming their plurals. 

OF THE FORMATION OF THE PLURAL OF FRENCH 
COMPOUND NOUNS. 

It is desirable that the Academy and the French grammarians, would 
at once agree in their opinions respecting the manner of making these 
■words plural. The dictionary of the Academy is full of contradictions, 
and the grammarians entertaining different opinions, either censure it 
or take it as a standard. The only point on which they appear to be 
willing to agree is, that the plural of compound nouns should be form- 
ed as though the words were used separately ; this must, therefore, 
be given as a rule. 

Rule. The plural of a compound noun must be formed 
as indicated by the sense of the words which compose it 5 
when taken separately. 

Ex.: Basse-cour poultry-yard basses-cours 

low yard loio yards 

ver-a-soie silk-worm vers-a-soie 

worm which produces silk worms which produce silk 

avant-garde vanguard avant-gardes I 

fore-guard fore-guards 

But it is not always easy to know the real meaning of the 
words which form a compound noun. In many instances they 
are used by ellipsis, and represent several other words that are 

W&at is the general rule for the formation of the plural of compound noun* ! 



164 



UtJMBEH. 



understood, and on which the plurality falls ; in other cages 
some of the words are obsolete, or altered in their spelling. 
They wiL be used in the plural as follows : 

All compound nouns used by ellipsis and representing seve- 
ral words understood, will not take the sign of the plural, if 
the plural sense falls upon one of the words understood, and 
also if the words forming the compound nouns, are invariable 
by their nature. For instance, the French word gagne-prtit, 
grinder, signifies gains little ; thus, un gagne-petit, means, 
undoubtedly, a man who gains little; and des gagne-petit, 
some men who gain lit tie. The plural falls upon men, which 
is understood, and this compound noun is the same in both 
numbers. 

N. B. It might be objected that the verb could take the plural form, 
but as the difFerent words united together have become a noun, it would 
not seem natural to find in that noun, the plural terminations of verbs. 

Un cent-suisses, is spelt with an s, because it is said by el- 
lipsis of one of the hundred Swisses, formerly composing the 
body-guard. 

It is the same with regard to passe-partout, night-key, (a 
key that passes every where,) of tourne-broche, turnspit, (a dog 
which turns the spit,) dame-jeanne, demi-john, (bottles of 
Lady Jane,) &c. 

Concerning compound nouns, of which some of the parts 
are obsolete or altered, their number being very small, a list 
of them can be given here. 

Singular. 
arc-boutant (1) 
arc-doubleau 

blanc-seing 

boute-feu (2) (and others 

•compounded with 

boute) 
contre-danse (3) 
£pine-vinette 
fier-a-bras (4) 
franc- ;\ lieu 
gomme-gutte 

What are the compound nouns which by their nature cannot take the sign of 1 
the plural?— What is said of contre-danse, cotillion ?— Of havresac, knapsack? — 
Of loup-garou, were-wolf ? 

[1] 12] Boutant is an adjective derived from the present participle of the obso- 
lete verb bouter; boute is the third person present indicative of the same verb. 

[3] Contre-danse is a corruption of country-dance. 

[4] Fier-a-bras is a corruption of fiert, third person of the obsolete verb /erir, 
to-ttrike, and a bras, with his arm. 







Plural. 


buttress 




arcs-boutans 


chief arch in a wall 


arcs-doubleaux 


blank paper 
signature 


ivilh a 


blanc-seings 


lintstock 




boute-feu 


cotillion 




contre-danses 


raspberry 




^pines-vinettes 


bully 




fier-a-bras 


freehold 




frnnrs-alleux 


gamboge 




gommes-guttes 



NUMBER. 16& 

Singu 7 ar. * Plural. 

grand'mere grandmother grand'meres 

(and all others in which grand is followed by an apostrophe.) 

havre-sac(l) knapsack havre-sacs 

loup-cervter lynx loups-cerviers 

loup-garou were-wolf loups-garous 

ortie-grieche male nettle orties-grieches 

pie-grieche speckled magpie pies-grieches 

EXERCISE. 

The rule on interrogative verbs with a substantive, page 114. 

Were his silk- worms over the leaves ? We had formerly but twc? 
grinders in this city. Where did your brother buy those demi-johns? 
Will our grandfathers and grandmothers go to the funeral ? That man 
stole our night-keys, but we wiil change the lock. Were the back- 
shops of those houses burning ? Yes, and the fore-roofs of the oppo- 
site stables also. You are welcome, since you bring my sisters-in-law 
and my grand-daughters. 1 asked for two nut-crackers. Did the game- 
keepers kill those bats? All those dandies are freemasons. They 
found our pocket-books in their portmanteaus. I do not approve of 
your frequent lete-a-tetes. Who asks you for the boot-jacks? We 
were speaking of the corkscrews. How many cotillions did your sis*- 
ter dance ? Hush I the were- wolves are howling* 



CHAPTER II. 

OF THE ARTICLES. 
SECTION I. 

General Rule. The extent of the signification of every 
substantive used as such, in a French sentence, ought to be 
determined by an article, if there is no other word to perform 
that office. 

All exceptions to this rule are placed after the illustrations. 

GENERAL PRINCIPLE. 

A substantive can only be used, in any language, in one of 
the four following modes, viz. 1st, to denote a whole species of 
things, or a class of things; as, man is subject to death; 
birds fly ; great men are scarce ; blue birds are 

What is the general rule on the articles ? 
CJJ Havre-sac is derived from the German habtrsac, signifying oats-bag* 



166 ARTICLES. 

pretty, &c, 2d, To denote a part of the species, or some 
individuals of the species, without any choice ; as, I have 
wine ; give me some bread; several ladies; twenty dol- 
lars, &c. 3d. To denote a part of a species, or some indi- 
viduals of a species, with reference to a particular individual 
or portion ; as, the wine of that bottle is good, but that 
beer is very bad ; your father is here, &c. ; and, 4th, To 
qualify another substantive, or to determine the sense of an- 
other word; as a field of battle ; to take pare, &c. 

This .principle and the general rule, lead to the following particular 
rules. 

Rule 1. When an English noun is preceded by an article 
either definite or indefinite, or by one of the words which de- 
termine the substantives, that article or word must be expressed 
in French, and even repeated before every noun to which it 
relates in the sentence. 

The words which, besides the articles, determine substan- 
tives, are, 

1. The possessive adjectives, my, thy, his, $c. ; mon, ton, 
son, &c. 

2. The demonstrative adjectives, this, those, §c.\ ce, ces, &c. 
% The interrogative or exclamatory adjectives, what! 

which? quel ? quelle ? &c. 

4. The cardinal adjectives of number, one, ten, a hundred 
&c. ; un, dix, cent, &c. 

5. The pronominal. adjectives that follow, which it has been 
judged proper to place here, accompanied by a noun, aucun 
homme, no man ; aucunefemme, no woman ; certain homme, 
a certain man ; certaine femme, a certain woman ; chaque 
personne, each person ; maint auteur, many an author ; 
mainte fois, many a time ; mil roi, no king ; nulle reine,T\o, 
queen; plusieurs soldats, several soldiers; plusieurs annees, 
several years ; quelque livre, some book ; quelqv es jleurs,some 
flowers ; tel, telle, tels, telles, such, like, in a few proverbial 
sentences; as, tel maitre, tel valet, like master, like man; 
tout arbre, every tree ; toute personne, every person. 

N. B. Tons and toutes, the plural of tout, are followed by the article. 

Rule 2. A substantive which is not determined by one of 
the preceding words, must be determined either by a definite 
or a partitive article, whether that article be expressed or not 
in English ; 

Is the article that determines an English noun expressed in French ? — What 
are the words which are used, besides the articles, to determine the nouns ?— - 
How is a French substantive to be determined, when the English noun, to 
which it corresponds, is not deierminedby any word ? 



ARTICLES. 16T 

Except when the noun qualifies another, as in a field of 
battle ; or when it forms sense with a verb, as in to take care^ 
or when it has, after a preposition, the sense of an adverb; as, 
with courage. Ail these exceptions will come under a parti- 
cular rule. 

OF THE USE OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. 

The definite article is prefixed to a noun which is under- 
stood in a general sense, and means the whole species, or a class 
of individuals of the species, or some definite part of the spe- 
cies, but always in the general sense. 

Ex. : L'or est precieux, Goldis precious, [gold in general.] 

J'aime les chevaux gris, Hike grey horses [in general.] 

Les muuvais livres sont Bad books are dangerous [bad books 
dangereux, in general.] 

The definite article, le, la, les, is therefore placed not only before 
nouns used in a general sense, but also before those determined in Eng- 
lish by the. The sense can present no difficulty, because when the i$ 
used in English, the following substantive is always determined by some 
other word ; as, the wine of that bottle. 

OF THE USE OF THE PARTITIVE ARTICLE. 

The partitive article is used before a noun which means 
some part of a species, some individuals of a class, some parts 
of a definitive kind. It is therefore used when the partitive 
article some or any is expressed, or can be understood, in 
English. 

Ex. : Du pain et clu fromage com- Bread and cheese composed our 
poserent notre diner, dinner. 

The learner will easily understand that our dinner was composed of 
some bread and some cheese, and not with bread and cheese, in the 
whole extent of the signification of these words, which would be aU 
bread and cheese. 

J'acheterai des chevaux gris, IvM buy grey horses [some grey horses.] 
II a de la biere excellente, He has excellent beer [some beer.] 

Remark. All names of arts and sciences, those of virtues, 
vices, talents, and qualities, particularly when personified, are, 
by the nature of their signification, always understood in a 
general sense, unless they are used to qualify persons or 



What is a definite article ? — When is it used? — What is a partitive article ? — 
When ought it to be used ? 



168 ARTICLES. 

things, or when they are made the attribute or possession of 
one or several persons ; as in the phrase it a du courage. 

Thus, by analogy, if I had the two following sentences to 
translate : / blame imprudence : he has courage, I would 
say, Je blame V imprudence : 11 a du courage. Jn the first 
instance, I blame imprudence in general ; any thing that is 
imprudent : there is no imprudence that I do not blame. In 
the second, He has not courage in general, since that would 
mean all courage, but he has some courage. 

Important exception. 1st, When the noun of a virtue, 
vice, or quality, used in a partitive sense, is qualified by an ad- 
jective, or determined by any word or words following it, the 
indefinite article un or une, must be used instead of the par- 
titive. 

Ex. : Cet homrae a un grand talent, That man has great talent 
Cet homme a du talent, That man has talent. 

2d, The indefinite article is also sometimes used with nouns 
of things that cannot be numbered, when qualified by an ad- 
jective. It has then nearly the meaning of a certain kind of: 
as, un vin delicieux, a sort of delicious wine, or some delicious 
wine. The partitive article would not be improper, although 
a little different in meaning; but names of arts, sciences, and 
talents, do not admit of this construction. 

As the distinction between the two articles is of very great impor- 
tance, the learner must endeavour to understand it thoroughly, and to 
become able to apply the rules immediately. For this reason he must 
always observe whether he alludes to the species or to some quantity. 
For instance, if he says, Hike apples, he undoubtedly means the species 
of fruit called apples, and then must translate his phrase by J^aime les 
pommes, while, if I say, I have eaten apples, I will translate the phrase by 
j*ai mange des pommes, because I have eaten some, and not the species. 

Thus, I am studying French, he teaches music ; must be translated by 
j'Sludie lefrancais ; it enseigne la musique ; because I study the French 
language; he teaches the art of music, not some music; but, we shall 
have music, is nous aurons de la musique. 

In some instances the definite article is used in opposition with the 
partitive, and gives to the phrase a peculiar meaning. For instance, 
prendre du the, signifies to take some tea, accidentally ; but, prendre le thi 
is to take tea, at tea-time, alluding to to the habit of taking tea. 

There are a few other phrases similar to this, construed Avith the verbs 
manger, to eat, and boire, to drink. 

Remark. When the definite article the is accidentally preceded by 

When do all namc-s of arts and sciences, virtues, vices, talents, and qualities, take 
the definite article 1— When do they take th»- partitive article ?— What is to be 
observed when one of these nouns is qualified by an adjective? 



ARTICLES. 169 

prepositions translated into French by de and a, the contraction of the 
preposition and article must take place as usual, when required. We 
may therefore come to this conclusion, that the words du, de la, de V, 
des, may either stand for some or for of the; the sense of the sentence 
alone will guide in translations. 

Thus, Varide la navigation will be translated by, the art of navigation, 
and not by, the art some navigation ; while in achetez de la musique, de la 
will be some, and not of the. 

EXERCISE. 

The irregular verb tisser and the rule on the interro-negative verb with a sub- 
stantive. Page 114 <fc 115. 

Misery is the consequence of crime Friendship is the tie of socie- 
ty. Give praise to merit, and contempt to vice. Actions are the effects 
of intentions. Soldiers have bread and meat. Sleep is the image 
of death. I desire to distinguish truth from falsehood. Has not 
that child bread and butter? Did not the servant give him cider and 
water? I praise courage, but I blame rashness. ' I like sweetmeats and 
cakes. The king protects innocence. The president defends liberty, 
and gives encouragement to industry. I shall repress insolence. Have 
patience, and you will surmount these difficulties. Has not that man 
woven this linen? No sir, he does not weave. Do you buy books and 
pamphlets? I will give you glasses and you will taste our wine. Skill 
is very useful in this world, but fortune often crowns audacity. Every 
man has his faults. Do you eat strawberries? I hfte them ; but I am 
now eating mulberries. I thought that you dJ^not like fruit. Yes, I 
very often eat fruit. She possesses extraordinary talent. The gene- 
ral has shown great courage. I find your beer very good ; but, after 
all, I prefer cider. His brother teaches mathematics. Are you not 
studying algebra? That country was the cradle of sciences, and the 
abode of peace. The effects of fear are terrible. I will go to my gar- 
den, by and by, and I will eat peaches. You do not possess remark- 
able prudence. Health and drunkenness do not go together. Wine 
is very dear. 

N. B. All that relates to certain expressions or constructions pecu- 
liar to the French language will be found among .the gallicisms. 

Remark. The following expressions take the article in 
French, according to the general rule, viz.: at church, to 
church, aPeglise; at market, to market, an marche; to auc- 
tion, at auction, a Pencan ; at school, to school, a Pecole; to 
war, at war, a la guerre. 

fo prison, or in prison, is generally translated by en pri- 
son ; to college, in college, by au college ; to bed, preceded by 
the verb to go, is expressed by the verb se coucher, to lay 
down, as, he goes to bed, il va se couch er. 

Do the words du, de V, de la, and des, always stand for some or any ? — How can 
you in translation find out whether these words are used in one sen e or the 
other?— What are the different expressions which require the article in French 
though not in English 1 

15 



170 ARTICLES. 

The article according to the general rule, is always prefixed- 
to these expressions of time: next year, last year, next 
spring, last fall, month, week. L'annee prochairie, Tannee 
passee,Ie printems prochain, Pautomne dernier, le mois pro- 
chain, la semaine derniere, &c. 

The next day is translated by le lendemain ; the next morning, by le 
lendemain matin; the day before by la veille ; the evening before, by le 
soir de la veille; last night (before bed time) by hier soir, and last night, 
(after bed time) by la nuit derniere; to-night (before bea time) by ce 
soir, and to-night, (after bed time) by cette nuit. 

But the names of months and days do not take the article, 
as will be mentioned among the exceptions. 

EXERCISE. 

The rule of interrogative verbs with est-ce que? Page 115. 

Were you at school yesterday morning before my sister? I bought 
these books at auction, but I will not carry them to school. My mother 
will go to church next week, but she is not well to-day. "Was she sick 
last year? Will 3/our cousin go to the country next month ? Did you 
not go to the ball last night ? No ; but I will go to-night. Did the 
constable send him to prison ? I will go to your country next year. 
The dinner was ready early the other day, because you sent the ser- 
vant to market the day before ; and the next day we dined late, be- 
cause I was sick. Did you go to war? When will you send those 
children to school? I would send them immediately if they were not 
sick. Why does he go to bed now ? When will you send your son 
to college? 1 sent him last fall. 

Remark. The rule which requires the dcSnite article to be placed 
before all nouns understood in a general sense, is without exception. 
But it is not so with that of the partitive article, ihe various ways of 
expressing which will be treated of in the following rules. The learner 
must never therefore apply to words which are understood in a general 
sense the rules which follow; nor can these be applied to words pre- 
ceded by the definite article the, or by other words used to determine 
substantives. 

RULES ON THE PARTITIVE ARTICLES. 

Rule I. The partitive article is expressed in French by 
the preposition de, alone, without le, la, les, when it comes 
immediately before an adjective ; or before any adverb fol- 
lowed by an adjective \ but the partitive article is expressed 
as usual, by du, de V, de la, and des, if the substantive comes 
immediately after it, whether it be followed by an adjective 
or not. 

Is there any exception to the general rule which treats of the definite arti- 
cle ?— Is there any to the rule on the partitive article ?— How is the partitive 
article expressed when immediately before an adjective ?— Is this rule observed 
before an adjective that enters into the composition of a compound noun! 



ARTICLES. 171 

Ex. : J'ai de bon papier J have good paper. 

Nous acheterons de bonnes plumes. 
We will buy good pens. 
Elle a de ties-belles robes. 
She has very handsome dresses. 
Nous avions des fruits excellens. 
We had excellent fruit. 

Remark 1. This rule does not apply to compound nouns 
the first part of which is an adjective. Thus, dandies must be 
translated by des petits-maitres, and not de petits-maitres > 
because compound nouns are used as if they formed but one 
word. 

Instead of endeavouring to give reasons for this rule, and repeating 
the numerous observations of grammarians on this subject, and their 
explanations, all of which are objectionable, it will answer just as well 
to advise the learner to consider this rule as a mere exception, which 
has been alloived, not required, as the gender of the substantive is suffi- 
ciently indicated by the adjective placed before it. 

But if some pupils object, why the same omission does not take place 
with the definite article in the same instance, the following explanation 
will probably satisfy them. 

The French language requires that all words understood in a general 
sense should be distinguished from those used in a partitive sense. 
Such has been the cause of the general rule (which admits of no ex- 
ception) that nouns used in a general sense ought to be determined by 
the definite article. But to prevent two things from being taken for 
one another, it is sufficient that one have a fixed sign. The general 
sense being always indicated by le, la, Us, it matters little whether the 
partitive sense be always marked or not by du 9 de l\ de la y and des 9 
since even the absence of these, before a noun, would show that this 
noun cannot be understood in a general sense. The determination of 
the gender would be therefore the only reason for using the article ; 
but the gender being known by the adjective which precedes the sub- 
stantive, that reason is removed, and the article may be left out with- 
out altering the sense. Should the same be allowed with the definite 
article, all distinction between the general and partitive sense would 
cease from that moment. 

Remark 2. It must be remembered that du, de V, de la, 
des, answer not only for some, but also fox of the, so that these 
words stand either as partitive articles or as definite articles 
preceded by de ; but as the above rule relates only to the par- 
titive articles, the learner must observe that although some is 
expressed by de alone, before an adjective, yet of the is inva- 
riably translated by du, de V, de la, and des. 

Can you ever use du, de P, de la, and des, before an adjective?— What must 
these words -stand for to allow you to use them so 1 — Is there any thing in the 
English phrase. that can help you to know immediately which article to use } mi 



172 ARTICLES. 

Ex. : II a achete* de mauvaises pommes. 
He has bought bad apples, [some.] 
duel est le prix des bonnes pommes ? 
What is the price of good apples, [of good apples in general.] 

This distinction will not be difficult to make, if it is remembered that 
whenever de comes in French, in connection with the definite article, 
it is represented in English by of, or any other preposition, translated 
into French by de. Examples of both articles will be given in the fol~ 
lowing exercise. 

EXERCISE. 

The verb punir. 

N. B. Remember, or consult again the rules on the place of the adjectives". 

"Will you not buy good apples? Why would you eat bad fruit? 
My cousin wears handsome dresses. My sister has bought excellent 
silk, and she is going to have new aprons. He related to us long sto- 
ries. The opinion of ancient philosophers was different from the sen- 
timent of modern philosophers. A simple crown is, in that happy re- 
gion, the reward of good actions. I accompanied last night some very 
amiable l.xdies. I punish bad scholars. Why do you punish them ? 
Because the effect of bad examples is pernicious. That man has wicked 
children. I generally buy the works of good authors. The conse- 
quence of great passions is the blindness of the mind and the corrup- 
tion of the heart. They have sent her rich presents. Do you not 
think that even warriors a»e tired of long wars? He showed me a part 
of the beautiful books which he bought. The French troops were un- 
der the command of good generals. The number of true friends is not 
very large. He has sons-in-law and daughters-in-law. Some free- 
masons supped at our house last night. 

Rule. II.— The partitive article, as was said page 66, is ex- 
pressed by the preposition de alone, without le, la, les, after a 
negative verb. But when the verb is interro-negative, the 
article is expressed as usual, by du, de la, de V, des. 

Remark.— Should the substantive which comes after a 
negative verb, be qualified by an adjective or determined by 
any word following it, it should be preceded by the article, as 
its sense cannot be vague and determined in the same phrase. 

This remark does not, however, apply to names of palpable things. 

Ex. ; II n>a pas un grand courage. 
He has not great courage. 
JVe jouez pas des airs trop longs. 
Do not play too long tunes. 

N. B. No particular exercise will be given upon this rule, which has 
been explained before. It is, as well as the Rule T, a mere exception 
to the general rule on the partitive article, and can be explained in the 
same manner. Some phrases on this difficulty will however be found 
in the next exercise. 

How is the partitive article used after a negative verb?— After an interred 
negative verb ? 



ARTICLES. 173 

I 

Rule III. — The partitive article is altogether suppressed 
after the preposition de, whatever be the English preposition 
which de represents. This preposition is repeated before 
every noun. 
Ex. : The evidence of some bribed witnesses saved him. 
La deposition de temoins subornes le sauva. 
He brought me (some) wine instead of (some) beer. 
II m'apporta du tin au lieu de bitre. 
He brought me (some) wine instead of bringing (some) beer, 

or for (some) beer. 
II ■iri'apporia du vin au lieu d'apporter de la bitre, or pour de la 
bitre. 

IN. B. It is very remarkable, that in order to explain that rule, which 
does not seem to have been thus far understood, French grammarians 
have had recourse to a number of definitions which may be resolved by 
saying that they have taken the effect for the cause. According to 
them, a noun is not preceded by an article when it is undetermined. 
But will any one explain how, in these two last sentences, beer is more 
determined in the latter than in the former? Can any one give a clear 
proof that the sense of these phrases is different, or that the mind which 
conceives beer to be in a vague sense in the first case, understands 
plainly that beer is determined in the second ? One circumstance by 
which many could be greatly misled, is the presence of the article in 
the latter phrase ; but this would be really taking the effect for the 
cause, as will be seen below ; unless the distinction might be made 
easy enough to be understood by strangers, since it resides, according 
to grammarians, not in the words, but hi the sense of the phrases. 

Euphony alone is the cause of the suppression of the article, as will 
now be explained. 

The only difference between the definite and partitive article is the 
preposition de, since 

La bitre signifies beer in general, or the beer, and 
De la'biere signifies some beer. 
This being the case, I cannot suppress de without changing the par- 
titive into a definite article. Now if I have to say, I like the taste of 
beer, I will translate that by, J-aime le gout de la biere. De represents 
the preposition of, and la indicates that the word beer has a general 
sense, for I undoubtedly mean the taste of beer in general. De la, 
therefore, cannot be taken for some, since de signifies of, and la, which 
remains, can signify but the. 

But how shall I translate, I have still in my mouth the taste of some 
beer which I drank yesterday ? May I use de before ds la, with the same 
facility as J placed it before la ? 
If I translate it so, I shall have 

The taste of some beer 
Le gout de de la Mere 
But then de is repeated twice in succession, which is inelegant. 



When is the partitive article entirely suppressed ]— What is the reason of 
that suppression? 

15* 



174 ARTICLES. 

If, suppressing one of the tie's, I say, le gout de la Mere, de la will sig* 
nify of the, not of some, or we may take de la for some, but then of is not 
expressed. 

These considerations must, no doubt, have presented themselves natu- 
rally to the mind of those who first made of the French a regular 
language. 

They could not say, le gout de la Here, when they meant the taste of 
some beer, since this phrase would signify in French the taste of the beer, 
or beer in general. They would not say, le gout de de la Here, because 
their ears would have been offended by the repetition of de; and they 
simply left out the article, and said, J'ai encore dans ma bouche le gout de 
Here que je bus hier. 

Observe that this suppression takes place only after the preposition 
de; for: he added water to some beer, would be translated by, il ajouta de 
Veau a de la bicre ; you will take out that stain with some beer, by, vous 
cterez ceite tache av'ec de la Mere; I would give a dollar for some beer, by, 
je donnerais un dollar pour de la bitre, &c. 

It is to be observed besides, that if two words can be connected either 
by the preposition de, or any other, the partitive article will be omitted 
ifde is used, but wiii be expressed after any other preposition. 

Ex. : Ces fruits etaient converts de paille. 

Ces fruits etaient couverts avcc de la paille. 
These fruits were covered with straw. 

Remark 1. Many English prepositions are translated into 
French by cte, when they accompany a verb or participle : after 
these, of course, the partitive article will be suppressed. 

The principal of these prepositions are /rom and about; the preposi- 
tion at after verbs signifying raillery, mockery, or astonishment - and also 
with and by, when the noun by which they are followed is indispensable 
to complete the sense of the verb or participie, and is connected with it in 
such a manner, that if the substantive is taken away the action ceases 
immediately ; as, a table covered with dust; a man surrounded by robbers. 
Suppose the dust or the robbers to be removed, the table is no longer 
covered, the man no longer surrounded ; with or by is therefore express- 
ed by de after these verbs. Yet, should with or by convey an idea of 
choice of the thing expressed, at the exclusion of something expressed 
or understood, avec or par and the article should be used ; as, toe white- 
wash our room with chalk instead of lime ; nous blanchissons notre 
chambre avec de la craie au lieu de chaux. Jhec or par are also used 
when the noun following ivith or by is not indispensable to complete the 
sense, of the verb. Thus the following phrase, these plants were spoiled 
by children, is translated by, ces plantes furent gdtees par des enfans, inas- 
much as the children may be removed, but the plants will be still 
spoiled. 

More will be said on this subject with the prepositions. 

Does the suppression of the partitive article take place after any other pre- 
position?— What are the prepositions translated into French by de?-— When is 
at expressed by de 1 — When are with and by translated also by de? 



ARTICLES. 1 75 

Remark 2. All substantives which are used after words 
expressing number or quantity, are of course understood in the 
partitive sense, since relating to quantity, tney cannot be taken 
in the whole extent of their signification. 

EXERCISE. 

The learner must know how to write a verb of the second conjugation. 

That man always speaks of things which amuse the company She 
is full of pride : look at her ! she is trimming her dress with white riV 
bons. She did not show great talent. That painter bought a large 
quantity of pictures, at auction, last night. I informed him that I 
would send him a basket of fruit, and a bag of nuts. He is really satis- 
fied with things which connoisseurs would blame. You really laugh at 
things which are not laughable. 1 will fill up the intervals with shav- 
ings, and not with straw. The queen gave to the general a handsome 
box enriched with diamonds. Those meadows enamelled with flowers, 
and crossed by streams in several directions, were spoiled by a pack 
of dogs and a troop of sportsmen. Do not choose too long tunes. He 
brought to us a bunch of grapes, instead of roses and jessamines. That 
woman is sworn with pride. She wears a dress shining with gold r and 
adorned with flowers, diamonds, and precious stones. On her head is- 
a magnificent diadem, surmounted with jewels. She is surrounded by 
flatterers, and overwhelmed with' compliments and homage. Is she not 
worthy of pity? Our soldiers perished from cold and hunger. You 
fill your head with nonsense. We reflected a moment upon his argu- 
ments; but he builds his defence upon the opinion of obscure authors. 
I am sure that he would give up his coat for wine or liquors. I will trim 
my d ess with velvet, and embroider it with silk. Why did you un- 
justly accuse me of faults which are unpardonable ? 

Continuation of Rule 3. As adverbs of quantity are 
connected with nouns by the preposition de, these nouns will 
not be preceded by an article, for quantity excludes generality. 
Ex. : I have many books. J'ai heaucoup de livres. 

Do not confound bien with adverbs of quantity, although it 
has nearly the sense of beaucoup, much or many. Bien was 
originally a mere adverb of manner only, modifying verbs, 
without any connection with what followed ; but in" the course 
of time, the sense of that adverb, which was very often fol- 
lowed by the partitive article, has been blended with that of 
the following article and noun, without however altering the 
construction, and has thus acquired the meaning which it has 
now, that of quantity equivalent to much or many, but with an 
idea of surprise or of confidence. 

Ex. : Vous avez bien de Pargent. You have much money. 

What is said of adverbs of quantity ?— Is the adverb bien governed by the sam© 
rale?— Why! 



176 ARTICLES. 

Plusieurs, several, being an indefinite pronoun, or pronomi- 
nal adjective, and able to deter mine the substantive by itself, 
must not be placed amongst the adverbs of quantity, nor be 
used with the partitive article, or de. Ex. : Plusieurs per- 
sonneSj several persons. 

N. B. Look at the adverbs of quantity, page 153. 

EXERCISE. 

The verb recevoir. 

How many children have you? I have no boys, but I have several 
£irls. When did you receive so much money ? Give me a little wine 
with much water. They had no more bread. The princesses have 
very handsome jewels with many d iamonds. We receive many letters. 
I will spend less money, and I will buy more books. Why does he re- 
ceive you with so much pride? How much piper do you consume in a 
day? That actress has a beautiful voice, but she has less success. You 
give me too many potatoes and too much beef. I shall never eat so 
much meat. Have you enough bread / Yes, sir, but I have not salt 
enough. He never will have friends. The servant never buys cucum- 
bers when she goes to market. I have no more beer. Their soldiers 
had no more powder when they received cartridges. He will not suc- 
ceed if he has but little money. If they would arrive to-morrow I would 
receive them as before. 

Rule 4. A noun takes no article :— 

1. When it is used to qualify another; as, 

La cloche d'alarme, The alarm-bell. 

Un moulin a vent, A windmill. 

2. When it is joined with a verb of which it modifies the 

sense ; as, 

Porter temoignage, To bear witneis. 

Prendre conge, To take leave. 

3. When it is governed by a preposition with which it 
acquires the sense of an adverb, and therefore modifies a verb ; 
and whenever it follows the preposition e?z, 

Avec courage, W ah courage. 

Par force, - By force. 

En verite, Indeed. 

t Remark. If this noun, however, be qualified by an adjec- 
tive, or determined by any following words, it must be pre- 
ceded by the indefinite article un or Me, except after en^ 
which admits of no article. 



I What is said of plusieurs 1— What are the instances in which the nouns do not 
require to be preceded by an article ?— Is that rule observed when the noun is 
determined by some following words 1— What is the reason given for the omis- 
sion of the articles ? 



ARTICLES. 177 

fix. : Avec un grand courage, With great courage* 
En toute hate, With all speed. 

And, 4. Before the adjectives different and divers, no doubt 
for the sake of not repeating the sound of d twice in succes- 
sion. 

Ex.: J'ai essay e differ ens moyens. I have tried different means. 

Remaikthat the partitive article alone is suppressed before these ad- 
jectives, but de is used before them when it stands for of or /rem, fyc* 
Ex. : J'ai des lettres de diverses personnes. 
I have letters of different persons. 

N. B. If the noun be not preceded by the article in the above 
instances, it is, first, because that noun has in neither of them 
a general sense, and therefore the article is not imperiously 
wanted ; and, secondly, because the noun has not a partitive 
signification, since in the first phrases it qualifies a noun, in 
the second it communicates its meaning to the verbs; and in 
the third phrases it has, together with the preposition which 
governs it, the sense of an adverb. 

The learner will find no difficulty in applying the first ex- 
ample of this rule (on which, moreover, a separate exercise 
"Will be given under this title: of the English nouns used a% 
adjectives,) because the function of an adjective, which the 
second substantive performs, is indicated by the very con-, 
struction of the English sentence, in which alarm' and win$ 
are evidently adjectives to bell and mill; nor will he find any 
difficulty in the second example, as those verbs and nouns cor- 
respond both in French and in English, except a few, which, 
relating especially to gallicisms, will be found in the Third 
Part of the Grammar; as for the third example, it will be ne- 
cessary to remark that substantives thus used always modify 
verbs in the same manner as adverbs, Some more explana^ 
tions will be given on this subject in the chapter on pre- 
positions. 

There are instances of two nouns in succession, that might be sub- 
ject to discussion, and present some difficulty. They are those in which 
the two words are in English connected by the preposition of; as, a 
man of genius, translated into French by un homme de genie. The ex- 
planation of this will not be long : genie has not certainly here a gene- 
ral sense : a man of genius is not a man who possesses all genius. This 
being understood, the word genie has either a partitive sense, of is used 
as an adjective to man. In the first instance, the article cannot be 
used, from the general rule that the partitive article is altogether sup- 
When two nouns are joined by the preposition de, is it always easy to distin^ 
guish whether the second must take the article or not ?— When is the article 
omitted before it ?— When is it used ? ' 



1^8 ARTICLES, 

pressed after de ; in the latter, it must not be used either, according to 
the fourth rule ; so that, in whatever sense the substantive may be un- 
derstood, no article will be required. As for those expressions which 
convey an idea of quantity, such as, a troop of robbers, une troupe de 
voleurs; a heap of money, un monceaud'argent; they could not take the 
article after the preposition of without being understood in the general 
sense, which these expressions are far from signifying, as quantity can- 
not be generality. 

The attention of the learner must be constantly turned to all that has 
been said upon this subject; for in many instances the word which fol- 
lows the proposition de, is used in the general sense, as in some phrases 
which were given, pnge 169 ; and as happens whenever a virtue or 
vice is personified, or when some of its attributes are mentioned. Ex. : 
A mark of courage, is translated by, une marque de courage; but, the peace 
0/ virtue, by, la paix de la vertu. That is because courage qualifies mark T 
or that a mark of courage can be but a mark of some courage, while 
virtue does not qualify peace, nor is the peace of virtue, the peace of 
some virtue; but peace is one of the attributes of virtue in general, vertu 
personified. 

It must be observed that when the second substantive is used in a 
general sense, the first is generally determined by a definite article ; 
for when the first noun is preceded by an indefinite or partitive article,, 
it can relate only to an indefinite portion of the species, and does not 
require that the substantive which relates to it should be expressed in 
a general sense. Thus we say, le poids des annees, the weight of 
years, because we speak of the weight that years or old age does not 
fail to bring; we mean the weight which always accompanies years. 
JSoth weight and jmrs $f$ determined, weight is one of the attribute* 
of years. 

But we say cette sorte de fruit, that sort of fruit ; un genre d'ouvrage,, 
a kind of work ; because fruit and ouvrage relate to sorte and senre y 
and are not fruit and ouvraye in general. It is exactly like, fruit of that 
gort, work of that kind. Sort and kind which express but a part of 
what follows, prevent the following noun from being understood in a 
general sense. 

It was necessary to multiply the examples here, since that 
distinction which is important in French does not exist in 
English. 

EXERCISE. 

' The learner must have written verbs like Recevoir. 

I perceive that your brother is a man of knowledge. That day of 
glory was crowned with complete success. You are, madam, a model 
,of wisl >m, and I hope thit you will listen to the voice of truth. They 
received me with politeness, but without eagerness, and I perceived 
that my visit was not pleasant. You repeat in vain your explanation. 
I conceive your plan very well. I owe your thanks for your services. 
Shall I pour out a cup of tea for that lady ? No, madam, she was ask- 
ing for a lump of sugar and a little more milk. A field of battle is a 
spectacle of horror. The gloomy silence of death after the reign of 



ttouNS. 179 

destruction, is like the calm after a tempest. He owes me a sort of 
Apology for that kind of impatience which he showed in the presence of 
my fimily. Besides, he spoke with extraordinary passion to my 
servant. They would owe you two hundred dollars now if they had 
not paid you. Do you speak French ? JN T o, sir, but 1 speak German 
and Italian. 

SECTION II. 

OF THE ENGLISH NOUNS USED AS ADJECTIVE3. 

English nouns are used as adjectives when they are placed 
before another noun, of which they express some qualifica- 
tion. Nouns are also used in French as adjectives to others ; 
(See Rule IV. page 176,) but the relation between the noun 
which is qualified and that which qualifies, is expressed in a 
different manner. The noun which performs the function of 
an adjective, is placed after the other, a proposition placed 
between them expressing the nature of their relation to one 
another; and, according to the rule above-mentioned, the se- 
cond of these nouns, partaking of the properties of an adjective, 
must not be determined by an article. 

The difficulty consists then in the choice between the pre- 
positions de, a, and en. 

De expresses all sorts of relation ; as, 

A gold ring, Une bague cPor, 

X river fish, Un poisson de riviere, 

A night cap, Un bonnet de nuit. 

But in many instances de would lead to equivocation : for 
instance, if a tea-cup were translated by une tasse de the, a 
tea cup could novbe distinguished from a cup of tea. In these 
instances the prep sition a is used instead of de. The princi- 
pal function of d is to express destination. 

A tea-cu.>, Une tasse a the, 

A sugar-cane, Une canne a sucre. 

A expresses some characteristic that necessarily accompa- 
nies an object. 

Rattle-snake, Serpent a sonnettes, 

A schema tist, Un homme a projets. 

A is used when the qualification is expressed by a present 
participle; as, 

Frying-pan, Potle a frire. 

How do we translate into French, English nouns used as adjectives ?— When 
is the preposition a to be used instead of de ?— What is the preposition used to 
express a characteristic mark ?— Or when the qualification is expressed by* 
present participle 1 



180 NOUNS. 

And also when it is expressed by a substantive, made an 
adjective by the termination ed ; 

A two-legged animal, Un animal a deux jambes. 

A expresses the agent that communicates motion or action 
to an object; 

Steam-boat, Bateau a vapeur, 

"Water-mill, Moulin a eau, 

Stringed-instrument, Instrument a cordes ; 

and the destination or use of the engine or instrument ; 

Flour-mill, Moulin afarine, 

Tooth-brush, Brosse a dent. 

The preposition de, in all the above instances, would signify 
different relations from those meant. 

Remark 1. When the noun which is applied to a vase, is 
qualified by the object that the vase contains and is destined 
to contain permanently, the noun which qualifies must be 
preceded by the definite article, because the thing contained 
is generally alluded to, although the other noun be mentioned 
first. 

For instance, if I say : give me the vinegar bottle, I want both the bot- 
tle and the vinegar, and the phrase must be translated by donnez-moi la 
bouteille au vinaigre ; but I will translate a liquor glass by un verre a 
liqueur, because I do not intend to find the liquor in the glass. Prac- 
tice has, nevertheless, allowed the use of the article before some of 
these nouns, whether they contain the thing or not ; but it is never a 
fault to omit the article in that instance. 

Remark 2. When the qualifying noun signifies something 
that enters into the composition of the thing- expressed by the 
noun qualified, or becomes inseparably united to it, the article 
is necessary, inasmuch as both of the nowns acting as substan- 
tives require to be determined. 

Omelette aux fines herbes, Omelet made with potherbs, 
Pommade au jasmin, Pomatum of jasmine, 

Tableau a l'huile, Oil painting. 

Remark 3. Some nouns used in English as adjectives, 
when placed before others, require the article if the two 
nouns are reversed. In these instances the article is used in 
the French. 

The cellar key, La clefde la cave. 

What is the proposition used when the qualifying' noun expresses the agent 
which puts the other into motion or action ?— And when this noun expresses 
the destination of an engine or instrument? — When is the article to be used be- 
fore the second noun, besides the preposition 1 



NOUNS. 181 

Remark 4. The words man, woman, boy, and girl, sig- 
nifying seller, and qualified by the name of the article sold, 
are generally translated by the words corresponding to, the 
seller of, or the little seller of, and not as formerly by homme, 
file. 

Ex. : The milk-man, Le marckand de lait, 

The apple- woman, La marckande de pommes. 

The preposition en is only used between two nouns, the se- 
cond of which expresses the matter which composes the first. 
As was seen before, de is used in the same instance. 

But en has more force than de and seems to attract the at- 
tention more particularly to the matter, and to show that it is 
employed to the exclusion of some other thing. 

EXERCISE. 

The verb rendre, to render, to return. 

I have a gold ring and a silver watch. My sister lias a coral neck- 
lace and a pair of pearl ear-rings. My father ^ave her, yesterday, a 
handsome straw hat, and a silk dress. Her friend Alice sent to her, 
from Philadelphia, a pair of buckskin gloves. When will you return 
our silver spoons and steel knives. Our host gave us sea-fish and 
goat's milk for our breakfast. That woman wears a beaver hat. Why 
did you give me a kitchen knife, instead of a table knife ? Lend me 
a sheet of letter paper. I will borrow, for that ball, a velvet hat and 
a lace veil. She has received a silver medal. You ask for a cup of 
coffee, and I have no coffee cups. If you will not return me my two- 
edged sabre, I will be angry. It is in the eating- room, on the tea- 
table, before the flower-pot. If we arrive too late for the steam-boat, 
we will cross the river in a sail-boat. When we went into the powder- 
mill we left our shoes at the door. We have large tea spoons and 
small soup spoons. Give him a glass of wine. Bring the wine-glasses. 
My brother will show you his air gun. Take away the milk-pot, and 
bring us the vinegar bottle. I do not ask for a money bag, I ask for a 
bag of money. 1 live in the hay market. Hand me the mustard pot, 
the pepper box, and the oil bottle. The oyster man has returned you 
but one dollar. Go to the street door, you will speak to the butter 
boy. I like ice-cream in the summer and apple fritters during 
winter. We counted in that church sixty white marble columns and 
forty gold chandeliers. 

OF THE NUMBER OF NOUNS AFTER THE PREPOSITIONS de, a, AND Ctt« 

In English, a word prefixed to another, being considered as 
an adjective, does not take the sign of the plural, although 
its signification be plural ; but in French a substantive always 

How are the words man, woman, boy, and girl, translated, when they mean 
seller, and are qualified by the name of the article sold ?— When is the proposi- 
tion en used?— What is the difference between en and de?— What is to be ob- 
served with regard to the number of the second of the two nouns ? 

16 



182 NOUNS. 

takes the sign of the plural, if its sense will admit it, which 
can be seen, by the English scholar, after the words are re- 
versed, 

Ex. : A ten-dollar bill, Un billet de dix dollars. 

Ox-sta!l, Eiable a bceufs. 

Bottled wine, Vin en bonleiHes. 

The same rule is observed in every circumstance in French 
when the two words are merely separated by the preposition 
whether the English phrase be construed as above or not. 

Ex. : A collection of music, Un recueil de musique. 
A collection of engravings, Un recueil de gratiures. 

EXERCISE. 

The learner must know how to writ", a verb of the Fourth Conjugation. 
Have you been at that shoe-store? I lent a five dollar bill to that 
chair manufacturer. He owes me a large sum of money. The book- 
seller who lives opposite, is my cousin, and the music-seller, who is 
talking to him, is his brother-in-law. His uncle is in an oil-store. 
That young man is a good card engraver. Peter was a poor sign 
painter. • I am going to the segar manufactory, because I have no good 
segars. I have lost my prayer-book. I am waiting for the clam boy. 
Go down, 1 hear the strawberry girl. The horse dealer whom you 
sent me, sold me a horse that bites all my grooms. Since you corres- 
pond with that merchant, send him that letter. He will go to the 
soap and candle manufactory, and will soon answer you. Your paper- 
man does not sell good paper. Have you heard the coal man? 

SECTION III. 

OP THE USE OR SUPPRESSION OF THE ARTICLE WITH SOME PARTI- 
CULAR CLASSES OF WORDS. 

1. French proper names of men require no article, as in 
English, and are also, as in the latter language, determined by 
articles and other words when a distinction is intended be- 
tween several persons having the same name. 

Ephestion etait 1'ami d' Alexandre, Ephestion was the friend of Alexander. 
L'Alexandre du nord, The Alexander of the north. 

2. But a name of dignity or title followed by the proper 
name, must be determined by the article le, la, les, although 
in the same case it is omitted in English. 

Ex. : Le General Washington, General Washington. 

3. The article is also used before a proper name which is 
immediately preceded by an adjective. Except saint, saint; 



Are proper names of men ever determined?— When ?— What is the rule re- 
specting the Use of names of dignity ?— -Is there any respecting proper names pre- 
ceded by an adjective 1 — What is it ? 



NOUNS. 183 

which is never used with an article when followed by a pro- 
per name. 

Ex. : Young Peter, Le jeune Pierre. 

Saint Lewis, Saint-Louis. 

Observation. The learner is now supposed to be acquainted with the four 
Tegular conjugations, and must commence to study the irregular verbs, after 
which he will examine the different divisions of that part of speech. But in 
giving the irregular verbs it will be necessary to consider that some are much 
more useful than others, by their frequent occurrence in conversation: and 
as every endeavour must be made to enable the learner to understand the 
French and to speak it as soon as possible, those verbs will be given first that 
are considered as the most important to be known. Questions, or rather French 
and English phrases, construed upon these verbs, must be given to the scholars 
to be immediately translated by them, and the teacher, by frequently using the 
same verbs in the French phrases which he will employ with the scholars, will 
render their progress still more rapid. 

Let the pupil read attentively what is said of the irregular verbs, from page 
131 to page 134, and let him write and learn, or simply learn, the verb prendre, to 
take, No. 4, page 143. 

EXERCISE. 

< Caesar was a great Captain. The name of that man is Andrew, 
and my mother took him for the Andrew who was my servant; but 
that Andrew has gone to Rome with that Peter, who was his intimate 
friend. Marshal Lannes was the friend of the Emperor Bonaparte. 
Youny; Louis was poisoned in his prison. Why do you take poor 
James' hat? King Richard went to the Holy Land. Admiral B. was 
the victim of his enemies. Let us take our tea. Doctor Johnson was 
the author of the Rambler. Cardinal Wolsey was too ambitious. I 
spoke to Colonel James before the battle. Major N. announced to me 
the death of General Wolfe. You have taken my place, John. Old 
Richard and his brother took the young orphan under their care. Saint 
Peter is represented with keys in his hands. 

4. Proper names of cities take no article, except a very 
few, the rnmes of which are derived from common substan- 
tives, and are found in dictionaries. 

Ex.: Paris, Londres, Le Havre, Paris, London, Havre. 
N. B. Le Havre signifies the Haven. 

Rule. Both the preposition to and in are translated by d 
before the name of a city, and when that name is preceded by 
aif article, that preposition is contracted with it when neces- 
sary. 

Ex. : Je demeure a Paris, au Havre. 
J live in Paris, at Havre. 

5. The proper names of the empires, kingdoms, and repub- 
lics of Europe, and the four quarters of the world, take the 
article Ze, /a, les, when the whole country is spoken of. 



Do proper names of cities take the article 1— What are the exceptions ?~ 
When do proper names of countries in Europe take the article ? 



184 NOUNS. 

N. B. We distinguish the kingdom from the city of Naples, by using 
the words themselves. Le Royaume de Naples, the kingdom of Naples. 

Ex. : La France est un pays delicieux. 
France is a delightful country. 

6. But the article is omitted if the idea is limited to a certain 
part of the country ; in which case the following rule must 
be applied : 

Rule. The prepositions to and in are translated into 
French by en, before these proper names of empires, king- 
doms, &c. From is rendered by de. 

Ex. : Je demeure en Espagne ; il va en Italie ; il vient d'Angleterre. 
J iivein Spain; he goes to Italy ; he comes from England. 

Remark. Dans is used instead of u and en when in has the sense 
of within, not without ; as, the revolution was in Paris, (within Paris, not 
out, but within its walls.) La Revolution etait dans Paris. But in, when 
it is followed by a proper name which serves as a qualification to a pre- 
ceding noun, is expressed by de; as, / have received a letter from a ban- 
ker in Paris ; J'ai re^u une lettre d'un banquier de Pari3. 

N. B. When dans is used before the name of a kingdom, empire, &c, 
the article the must be placed before these words. 

7. The proper names of empires, kingdoms, republics, pro- 
vinces, and states, out of Europe, are always preceded by the 
article. So are the names of provinces and states in Europe. 

Rule. Before these words the preposition in is always ex- 
pressed by dans, and although some of the latter names of pro- 
vinces and states may be preceded by en without an article, 
yet dans followed by the article is always correct. The pre- 
positions of and from are expressed by de, to by a, and the 
article is contracted as usual when necessary. 

Ex. : Dans la Chine, dans le Bresil, dans la Champagne. 

In China, in Brazil, in Champagne. 

Du Connecticut, a la Louisiane. 

From Connecticut, to Louisiana. 

8. Names of mountains, rivers, winds, and many islands, are 
used with the article. 

Ex. : Le Ve'suve, le Gange, 1'aquilon, la Corse. 

Vesuvius, the Ganges, the north wind, Corsica. 
N. B. It would be too long to give here the names of the islands that 
take the article ; but if any difficulty occur, it may be avoided by- 
placing before the proper names the words file de, the island of. It 

When are they used without the article ? — What are the proper names which 
always take the article ? — How do you express the prepositions to anu in before 
the name of a city which takes no article ? — And when the city is preceded by 
an article? — How do you translate the same prepositions before names of coun-. 
tries in Europe /—And before countries out of Europe l~r When do you translate 
in by dans 1 — When by de 1 



NOUNS. 185 

may be said, however, that all groups of islands take the article in the 
plural. Only three islands in the Mediterranean are preceded by the 
article, viz. : ia Corse, la Sardaigne, la Sicile, and the prepositions foand 
in are translated by en, without the article, before the same names. 

The following expressions may be used in some circum- 
stances : Le Mont Fesuve, Le Mont Parnasse : Le Jleuve du 
Tage, $c. 

EXERCISE. 

The derivatives of the verb prendre, page 144. 

Are you not learning geography ? Yes ; Italy is the garden of Eu* 
rope. France is separated from Spain by the Pyrenees, and from Italy 
by the Alps. Europe is bounded on the north by the Frozen ocean * 
on the south by the Mediterranean sea ; on the east by Asia ; and on 
the west by the Atlantic ocean. The principal rivers are the Volga 
and the Don, in Russia; the Danube, the Rhine, and the Elbe, in Ger^ 
many ; the Vislxda, in Poland-; the Loire, the Seine, the Rhone, and thfe 
Garonne, in France ; the Ebro, the Tagus, and the Duero, in Spain; 
the Po, in Italy; the Thames and the Severn, in England; and the 
Shannon, in Ireland. We learned yesterday that the principal moun- 
tains are the Scandinavian Mountains, between Norway aud Sweden;- 
Mount Crapel, between Poland and Hungary ; the Pyrenean Mount ains 9 
between France and Spain ; and the Mps, between France and Italy,, 
The west wind tempers the heat of summer. I did not understand 
why my father went to Havre. He has some business in France, and 
will remain two months in Paris ; then he will go to London, where 
he will meet loith my uncle, and they will go to Naples together. If 
you go to Italy, I will accompany you. Perhaps I shall go to Marti- 
nique or to Havana. You do not understand how Touraine, which 
was a province of France, has been under the sea. Have you ever 
travelled in Peru ? No, sir, but I have explored Kentucky and Jllabama.. 
The ancient poets used to place the Cyclopes in the caverns of JEtna, hk 
Sicily. They surprised me when they answered that Canton was in 
Japan, because they have leirned geography. 

9. Proper names of empires, kingdoms, provinces, fyc* are, 
as well as other nouns, sometimes used as adjectives in French, 
It must be observed that in such a case the article is omitted 
before the-names of those situated in Europe, even when qua- 
lifying sovereigns, while it is preserved before others, 

Ex. : The King of France. Le Roi de France. 

The emperor of China. Vempereur de la Chine. 

N. B. Observe that the English most generally make use of 
an adjective, instead of proper names to qualify articles of 
commerce, which construction is not generally allowed in 
French, in this instance. 

How do you use proper names of countries when used to qualify noun* -~:^» 
articles of commerce qualified by adjectives of nation in French as ih Engh*U? 

16* 



186 NOUNS. 

Ex. : Some Spanish tobacco* Du tabac dSEspdgne, 

Some Burgundy wine. Du vin de Bourgogne* 

EXERCISE. 

? The verb ecrire, to write, page 146. 

French cloth is very good. The goldsmith melted Spanish dollars? 
and French crowns. That musician has received Italian strings and 
Naples oil. Do you like French sweet oil? Champaign wine is ex- 
cellent. The emperor Bonaparte gained the battle of Ansterlitz 
against the Emperor of Russia, the King of Prussia, and the Emperor 
of Austria. I will write to my correspondent, because I have sold al- 
most all my Madeira wine. Doctor N. wrote to me on a piece of pa- 
per: take Corsican moss. Write to your book-binder, that if he will 
not bind your English grammar with Russia leather, you will not pay 
him. I have written to him. Who has not admired the fine sky of 
Italy and of the south of France ? 

10. The names of the months are never preceded by the ar- 
ticle; the preposition in is therefore translated by en before 
these words. En is always expressed, even when only un- 
derstood in English, if used to determine time, 

Ex. : He will arrive next September. 
II arrivera en Septembre prochain. 

Untile before the name of a month, is expressed as follows. 

TT ... 4 . ( jusqu'au mois d'aout. 

Until August, < J . i , A . 

( jusqwen aout. 

11. The names of the days do not take the article when they 
are applied but to one particular day, which is always com- 
prised within the next or the past week, as they then perform 
the function of adverbs of time; in other instances they take 
the article as explained below. 

Observe, that the English preposition on is never expressed 
in French before the names of days. 

Ex.: He will be here <>n Sunday. 
II sera ici Dimanche. 

The definite article le, in the singular number, gives a ge- 
neral sense to the name of a day, which is then understood to 
be the same day of every week; unless, however, it be ap- 
plied to but one single day qualified by some other words. 

Ex. : Le Jeudi. On Thursdays. 

Le Vendredi-Saint. On Good Friday. 

The article le is used also to express the relation of two 
days following in the same week, for time either past or fu- 

How is the phrase construed then ? — Is the article used before the names of 
the months '! — How is in expressed before these words? — When are the day* 
of the week preceded by the article J— How ia on expressed before these words? 



NOUNS. 187 

ture, far or near, provided they belong neither to the past nor 
to the next week. 

Ex. : He escaped on Tuesday, and was taken on Friday. 
II echappa It Mardi et Jut pris le Vendredi. 

N. B. The names of the days are also used in the plural number,, 
and are preceded by les, but that mode generally conveys the idea of 
an accidental arrangement, or is limited to business. 

The indefinite article is used before the same words in 
French as it is in English. 

Ex. : On a Sunday, or one Sunday. Un Dimanche. 

EXERCISE. 

The derivatives of ecrire, to write, page 147. 

April is the month which I like, but 1 have not time to go to the 
country until June. He will arrive next January or February. I 
will subscribe to that paper, because it arrives here on Mondays and 
Thursdays. I went to West Point on Saturday, and I spent my time 
very agreeably: when I returned, I described the place to your sister, 
who went there on Tuesday: I expect that she will return on Satur- 
day. He received sixty dollars on Wednesday last, and he has two 
shillings to-day. Last year I used to give him ten dollars on Satur- 
day, and he always returned on Monday without one cent. You are 
very foolish if you think that Friday is an unlucky day, for I was al- 
ways fortunate on Friday: I gained a law-suit on a Friday : I bought 
a house on a Friday, and doubled my money, &c. You shall not tran- 
scribe that deed on Sunday. 

SECTION IV. 

OF NOUNS USED IN APPOSITION. 

Apposition is the using of different appellations to designate 
the same person or thing. 

General Rule. — When two nouns are used in apposition, 
or a noun in apposition to a pronoun, if the second is consi- 
dered an adjective to the first, it takes no article. 

The difficulty consists in distinguishing when the second noun is an 
adjective, and when not ; and in order to enable the learner to under- 
stand this matter, it will be necessary to compare the English construc- 
tion with the Fn nch. 

Rule 1. When the second of two nouns, used in apposi- 
tion is determined by the article the, and is separated from the 
first only by that article, that second noun is considered a sub- 

What is apposition 1 — When is that the second of two nouns used in appo- 
sition, does not require an article, although preceded in English by the! 



188 NOUNS. 

stantive (in which case the article is expressed in French,) 
when it is introduced into the sentence, in order to establish a 
distinction between the person or thing expressed by the first 
noun, and other persons or things ; when it is an illustration of 
the first noun or words ; or when it is connected as a substan- 
tive with what follows. But it is considered an adjective, and 
the article is omitted, when it simply expresses qualification 
without distinction, &c. 

Ex. ; Your brother, the doctor. Votre frere le docteur. 

His favourite weapon, the pistol. 
Son arme favorite, le pistolet. 
My farmer, the man who brought the letter. 
Mon fermier, P homme qui apporta la lettre. 
Saturn, the son of Jupiter. Salurne } fils de Jupiter, 
The peacock, the emblem of pride. 
Le paon, emblime de Vorgueil. 

Rule 2. When the second of two nouns, used in apposi- 
tion is preceded by the indefinite article a or an, and sepa- 
rated from the first noun only by that article, or when the two 
nouns are placed immediately after one another, without an 
article, as often happens in the plural, this second noun is con- 
sidered an adjective, and no article is expressed in French. 

Ex. : My neighbour, a man of great knowledge. 
Mon voisin, homme de grandes connoissances. 
The Misanthrope, a comedy of Moliere. 
Le Misanthrope, comelie de Molitre. 
Those men, strangers in our city. 
Ces homines, etrangers dans notre ville. 

Remark. The verb tire, to be, is often introduced in French, be- 
tween two nouns used in apposition, particularly in common conversa- 
tion : the phrase thereby acquires more fluency. 

Ex.: My neighbour, a man of great knowledge. 

Mon voisin, qui est un homme de grandes connoissances. 

N. B. Before passing to the explanation of words in apposition, which ar© 
separated by verbs, it will be proper to write the following 

EXERCISE. 

The verb lire, to read, and its derivatives, pages 146 and 147. 

Did you not read in the paper, that my brother, the merchant, had a 
duel ? We will elect his uncle, the lawyer, instead of his cousin. The 
protectress of lovers, the moon, will light your steps. The hutterfly, 
the perfect model of inconstancy, caresses all the flowers. Mary, di- 
vine beauty, listen to me! Lafontaine, a man of rare genius, was sim- 
p'e and artless. The beaver, a very interesting animal, is endowed 

When is a or an not expressed in French before the second of two nouns used 
& japppsition 1 






NOUNS. 189 

with great intelligence. He was reading Waverley, a novel by Wal- 
ter Scott. When I do not read the paper, I go to your cousin, the 
bookseller, and he gives me the news. We are reading the works of 
Chaptal and Cuvier, books very useful in our profession. John, the 
• man, who works in the garden, is reading a novel. 

Remark. Two nouns used in apposition are sometimes separated 
by a verb. This takes place when the noun which follows the verb is 
the same person or thing as the nominative or the objective of the 
verb; as, your uncle loas a tailor ; he went to Paris a fool, and returned, a 
foot. Your uncle and tailor name the same person, so do he and fool. 
In the French phrase, nous le nommdmes Jean, we called him John j 
him and John are in apposition. 

Rule 3. When the second of two nouns used in apposi- 
tion, and separated by a verb, is determined by the article the, 
that article must be used or omitted in the same instances that 
the Rule i indicates, if it relates to a person, and must always 
be expressed if it relates to things. 

Ex. : Yc u are the man whom 1 blame. 

Vous ctes Vhomme que je blame. 
He went as a soldier and returned the colonel of his regiment* 
II alia comme soldat et retourna colonel de son rtgiment. 

The pen is the weapon of poets. 

La plume est Varmc des paetes* 

Rule 4. When the second of two nouns used in apposi- 
tion, and separated by a verb, is preceded by the indefinite ar- 
ticle a or an, or is not preceded by any article, the second 
noun is considered an adjective, and the article is omitted, if 
this noun expresses simply qualification or definition. 

To lie is baseness. Le mensonge est bassesse. 

They were sailors. lis etaient matelots. 

The king appointed him captain of a frigate. 
Le roi le nomma capitaine defregate. 

Rut the second noun is considered a substantive, and takes 
the indefinite article un or une in the singular, and the partitive 
des in the plural, (even before proper names,) when that second 
noun is the name of a person or thing compared with the first; 
when it is intended to give a character to a person or thing ; 
and when it is used like a substantive with what follows. 

Ex. : That man is a Hercules. 
Cet homme est un Here ale. 
These young ladies are beauties. 
Q$s demoiselles sont des beautes. 

Can two nouns used in apposition be separated by a verb ?— When is the arti- 
cle the expressed before the second ?— When is a or an expressed before ih.e 
second? 



190 



NOUNS* 



That hermit is a saint. 
Cet ermite est un saint. 

Your answer is an insult. 
Voire reports e est une insulte. 
Henry is a tailor who works well. 
Henri est un tailleur qui travaille bien. 

Eemark 1. When the second of the two nouns is followed by 
other words with which it forms but one sense, as those ex- 
pressing trades, it is used as an adjective ; as, ?narchand de 
lait, milk-man ; but if the two words are unconnected, the first 
is used as a substantive ; un negotiant de Savannah, a mer- 
chant of Savannah. 

Remark 2. When the second of the two nouns is qualified 
by an adjective, it is generally considered a substantive, and 
must be preceded by the article, which may be however some- 
times omitted, for elegance' sake; as in the following phrase: 
Ilfut hon pcre, hon eyjoux. He was a good father and a good 
husband. 

R km ark 3. The rules given in pages 67 and 172, which re- 
quire the articles a or an, and the partitive article to be express- 
ed by de alone, after a negative verb, are not observed after the 
;¥erb etre, 
Ex. : >/ous ireHes p38 nn CiceVon. You are not a Cicero* 

:Nous ne sommes pas des vampires. We are not vampires. 

Rule 5. A noun used in apposition with tout ; all, takes no 
article. 

All is vanity : Tout est vaniie. 

Rule 6. A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a 
sentence, or a part of a sentence, and in that case takes no ar~. 
tide, since, relating only to what precedes, the extent of its 
signification is limited by that sentence itself. 

Ex. i He recommended me to the mayor, a kindness that I shall not 
forget. 
B me recmrvtnanda au moire, bcnU queje n'oublierai pas. 

There are some phrases in which the verb to be, is used 
between the first part of a sentence, and a noun put in apposition 
with it. In these, the article is suppressed only when that 
noun is not qualified or determined by any other word placed 
either before or after it. 

Ex. : He leaves the command to his wife : is that goodness ? No it is 
weakness. 
Jl lalsse le commandement a safemme : Est ce bonte? Non, e'est 
falblesse. 
Rule 7. The noun which comes after the conjunction 

How are the articles, used after the verb etre negatively ?— 13 the rrticle used 
before a noun used in apposition with tout, all ?— And before a noun used in ap* 
position with a sentence ? 



KOUNS. 191 

tomrne, signifying as, is considered an adjective, and takes no 
article; but after comm e, signifying like, the noun preserves 
its properties of a noun and is preceded by the article. Thus 
there is a difference in the meaning of the two following 
phrases : 

II mourui comme chretien. 

He died as a christian, (because he was a christian.) 

II mourut comme un chretien. 

He died like a christian, (as a christian dies.) 

Rule 8. There is a sort of construction in which two nouns ? 
though used in apposition, are separated by the preposition 
de. That construction is not peculiar to the French language, 
as may be seen by the following example ; but it occurs more 
frequently in French than in English. It takes place only when 
the mind, struck at the sains time by two expressions, equally 
applicable to the same person or thing, hesitates to give the 
preference to one, at the exclusion of the other. Both words 
are then used and connected together by the preposition de. 
Ex. : Ce giant de negre, That gainl of a negro. 

Qud drole de nsz t What a singular nose. 

N. B.— An exercise mast be written on what precedes, before passing to ano- 
ther difficulty on words used in apposition. 

EXERCISE. 

The verb mouHr, to die, page 137. 

They called him the conqueror of kings. Homer is called the father 
t>f poets, and iEsop the father of fable. P. is not the author whom I 
admire, since I biush while reading him. He answered that he was a 
Christian, and would die a Christian. Calumny is the weapon of the 
coward, and tears are the eloquence of oppressed innocence. Bayard 
was a hero. Will not that monster of a king die for the happiness of his 
subjects ? Your creditor is a Turk, since he prosecutes you thus. That 
woman is a fury, and her husband a Socrates. That poor little girl is a 
lamb who endures your ill treatment with incomparable sweetness. 
Many ministers of state are vampires, who suck the blood of the nation. 
We are unhappy merchants, ruined by the hst war. Edward was an 
unfortunate prince. Our soldiers will be heroes, since our generals are 
Caesars. Are you a member of the society of Jesus. That young man 
will be a good husband, because he was a good son. I selected several 
pieces: Cinna, a tragedy, The Soldier's Return, a song, and Waverley, 
a novel. My uncle is a bookseller, and his son is a poet. He is dying 
through the carelessness of that rascal of a coachman. Your legislator 
is not a Solon. The severity of the laws is humanity towards the people. 
Several philosophers pretend that all is egotism in this world. His uncle 
is a merchant who has gained a great deal of money during the war, 
but he is extremely covetous, and will die like a miser. I call that 
courage imprudence. He had in this trunk the articles stolen, an evi- 
dent proof that he was guilty. We are mothers and we ensily forgive 
the faults o£onr children. Your daughters are not angels. That young 

What must be observed with regard to nouns following comme 1 



192 NOUNS. 

man will be a remarkable painter; his brother is already an excellent 
sculptor, and his father was an architect renowned for his great genius. 
'The cat eat the bat not as a mouse, but as a bird. Did he not act like a 
hyprociite ? They recite their lessons like parrots. 

Rule 7. When a noun is put in apposition with a pronoun 
of the third person, nominative to the verb to be ) if that noun, 
not being used as an adjective, requires to be preceded by an 
article, (see Rules 3 and 4,) the pronoun of the third person 
nominative to the verb tv be, whether masculine or feminine, 
singular or plural, must be expresed by ceor c\ which, except 
in this instance, generally stands for it 

Ex. ': He is a musician. II est musicien. 

He is a musician whom I heard in Paris. 
Cest un musicien que j ai entendu a Paris. 

N. B. If ee is used before the verb etre, the article must come after. 
Ex. : Cest un homme. It is a man. 

Illustration. The genius of the French language requires that 
when the verb etre, used in the third person, is followed by a noun 
which is determined by an article or any preceding word, the nomina- 
tive of the verb etre should be the adjective ce or c\ the principal use 
of which is to fix the attention upon the substantive which follows. 
The phrase is then elliptical, for ce is the demonstrative adjective which 
we suppose to determine a noun which is omitted. 

Ex. : She is a woman who deserves a crown. 
Cest une femme qui merite line couronne. 

Jt is exactly as if the phrase were t that person is a itioman, fyc. 
Is he your brother ? Est-ce voire frere 7 

Rule. The verb etre agrees in number with the noun which 
follows it, only in the third person. Bnt in the present of the 
indicative est is sometimes used iustead of sont. This mode, 
though judged as correct as the other by grammarians, is to be 
avoided. 

Ex. : They are your friends. Ce sont vos amis, 

Rkmark. Since this construction directs the attention to what fol- 
lows, it will be proper to use it, even when the noun which comes after 
the verb etre has the sense of an adjective, if it is intended to give force 
to the phrase, or if the noun expresses character. This noun must then 
be preceded by an article. 

Ex. : He is a drunkard. Cest un ivrogne. 

Wnenis the nominative to the verb etre expressed by ce ore' ? — How istheno- 
sninative to the verb etre expressed, when that nominative is a pronoun, and the 
▼erb etre is followed by an article, or any of the words used to determine noons ? 



NOUNS. 193 

£fence there are two constructions ; and this phrase, He is a musician i 
Snay be translated by II est musicien, or C'est un musicien; but it ought 
not to be taken for a rule, that the two constructions, II est musicien, or 
Cest un musicien, have generally the same meaning, with more or less 
force. It is not so : the first is used when it is intended to designate a 
person who is well known; and the second, when it is desired to give 
rank or character to an unknown person, by the noun which follows 
etre. Thus, if I ask what rank your brother holds in the army, you 
will answer, // est capitaine ; but when I ask, -who is that gentleman? 
pointing to a person whom I have never seen, if you intend to make him 
known at once by mentioning his rank, you must answer, Cest un 
capiiaine. 

All that has been above said, leads to this general conclusion. 

General Rule. When the verb to be, used in the third 
person, and having a personal pronoun for its nominative, is 
immediately followed by an article, or one of the words used 
to determine nouns, the nominative pronoun must be translat- 
ed into French by ce or c', and that article or that word must 
be expressed in French. 

There is an exception to this general rule. It takes place when the 
idea falls upon the person more than upon his title ; so that the pro- 
noun ce would not be strong enough to represent it. 

Ex. : He is the king. II est h roi. 

N. B. In one instance only, c'est or est-ce, &c>, may not be followed 
by an article : it is when the noun which follows this verb is put in ap- 
position with a sentence, as in an example given, Rule 6, page 190. 

N. B. Be careful in the following- exercise, not to use ce, or c\ and un, when 
it is not required. 

EXERCISE. 

The verb dire, to say, page 146. 

Introduce me to your partner, and tell him, that, since he is a French- 
man, I will speak French to him. I will introduce you to that lady ; 
she is a widow, and her sister is a nun. She is an amiable woman, and 
my brother has told me that she is an excellent musician. Mr. P. is 
here ; have you not spoken to him ? That name is unknown to me. 
He is a merchant from Savannah. Oh ! yes, he is a particular friend of 
Mr. J. He is a man who receives all his countrymen with much kind- 
ness. Is he not a German? No, sir; he is a Spaniard. Peter has 
lost all his money ; but he is a fool, because those men cheated him. 
He is gambler, and I say that he deserves that little punishment. Do 
ou not perceive that man who is passing before that house ? No, sir. 
"e is the painter whom I employ. Why do you not speak to those 



E 



What is the difference between the phrase construed with ce or c\ and that 
in -which the pronoun is translated by il, elle, Us, elles? 

17 



194 NOUNS, 

ladies ? They are Italian. No, sir ; they are French. Did yon not 
tell me that your cousin is studying medicine? Yes; he is a doctor 
now. And are his brothers still in the navy ? Yes j they are captains. 



SECTION V. 



OF THE CHANGE OF THE ARTICLES AND PREPOSITIONS, AND OMISSION 
OF THE ARTICLES. 

Rule 1. The indefinite article a or an is expressed in 
French by the definite article le, la, les, before nouns of mea- 
sure, weight, and purchase. 

Ex. : Trois sous la livre. Three cents a pound. 

Rule 2. When speaking of time, with reference to repeti- 
tion, a or an is rendered by the preposition par, without an 
article. 

Ex. : Dix piastres par semaine. Ten dollars a week. 

Rule 3. The same preposition 'par corresponds to all English 
expressions of rate, division, or distribution, and particularly 
to per ; yet pour is used for per before cent, hundred : thus, 
four cent is the French for per cent. 

Ex. : Trois dollars par personne. Three dollars for each person. 
Vingt livres par baril. Twenty pounds per barrel. 

Cinq pour cent. Five per cent. 

N. B. A peculiarity relating to the use of the articles with half and 
Much, will be found among the adjectives and the indefinite pronouns; 
and some peculiar locutions will be placed among the gallicisms. 

EXERCISE. 

' "The derivatives of dire, to say, page 147. 

He will work in your shop for fifty cents a day, but I foretell that he 
will ask ten dollars a week next month. I will not give you my cheese 
for ten cents a pound. The butcher asked me seven pence a pound for 
his veal. My father goes to Boston six or seven times a year, and 
■does not spend on his journey three dollars a day. You say one thing: 
;and you repeat it twenty times an hour. "Why do you contradict me, 
then. I will give you three lessons a week. I will not buy these oats 
if the man has fixed the price at fourteen shillings a bushel. That silk 
cost me five shillings a yard. I bought those books for six cents a vo- 

• 

When is a or an expressed by le, la, les ?— When by par I— For what is par used 
besides, ? 



NOUNS. 195 

lume. He sells his wine for two francs a bottle. Those engravings 
are cheap at ten cents a piece. Why do you slander that man ? Be- 
cause he told me that he would allow me three cents a bottle on that 
wine ; and when I went to pay him, he allowed but three per cent. 
The general sent three thousand cartridges for each company. 

Rule. The preposition to is expressed in French by de be- 
fore nouns expressing alliance, consanguinity, appropriation 
to a particular person, &c. ; in short, whenever it may be in 
English expressed by of in the same circumstances. 

Ex. : The Duke of Orleans, the son to the king. 
Le Due d? Orleans, fils du roi. 
Mr. M., the architect to the king. 
M. M., architects du roi. 

To is also translated by de after the words road, way, path % 
and the like. That preposition is not followed by any article 
before the names of countries or cities, but the article is used 
before common nouns when road, way, or path, are used 
metaphorically. 

Ex, : Nous sommes sur la route de Londres. 
We are on the way to London. 
Le chemin du bonheur. The way to happiness. 

N. B. The possessive adjectives before the above words, 
road, way, §c, are not expressed in French. 

Ex. : Nous etions sur la route de Paris. 
We were on our ivay to Paris. 

EXERCISE. 

The verb mettre, to put, page 143. 

Mr. John, brother to your neighbour, went to the ball with Miss 
Jane, niece to General P. They will put you in prison, because you 
have insulted the physician to the Empress. The heir to the immense 
property of the General put his confidence in his friend, the counsellor 
to the Prince. Go to the City -Hall, and there inquire for the road to 
the Battery. Why have you put on your sign, road to wealth ? I 
would put, if I were in your place, road to misery. The advice of that 
wicked man will put you on the way to the state-prison. We were on 
the road to Paterson when we met that man. I live on the road to 
Harlem. What is that book ? Road to Heaven ! That is a fine 
title. The path to science is very narrow. Will you find the path to 
my cottage ? 



When is to translated by de ?— How is to translated into French after the 
words road, way, and the like 1 



196 NOUNS. 

OF THE OMISSION OF THE ARTICLE. 

The article is omitted : 

1. In an emphatic and animated style, and when many sub- 
stantives come together, as its repetition would seem inelegant. 

Ex. : Citoyens, etrangers, ennemis, peuples, rois, empereurs, le 
plaignent et le reverent. 
Citizens, enemies, strangers, people, kings, emperors, pity and 
respect him. 

2. When a noun is used as an apostrophe or interjection, 
according to the intention of the speaker. 

Ex. : Soldats ! soyez fermes, Soldiers ! be firm. 

But if the substantive is used to name a parent or relation it 
ought to be determined by the possessive adjective , except 
the words papa, maman, and their compounds, which are not 
preceded by the possessive adjective. 

Ex. : Mon pere ! ma fille ! Father ! daughter I 

N. B. Father, brother, &c, when used towards strangers out of re- 
spect or fondness, without being followed by a proper name, are like- 
wise preceded by the possessive adjectives. But the same words do 
not take the possessive adjectives if they are followed by the proper 
names of the persons, as when addressing monks or nuns. 

3. When it is in the form of a title, to one of the objects of 
the class which it designates \ or when it is used as an address 
on a letter, &c. 

Ex. : Grammaire Franchise, composition, 

Jl French Grammar, the composition. 

But, Le cure de Wakefield, The Vicar of Wakefield. 

because this title does not designate a class of books. 
Rue Carmine, Village de Greenwich. 
Carmine Street, Greenwich Village. 

4. After soit, either, or; and after ni, neither, nor; both 
of them, when before words used in a partitive sense. 

Ex.: Soit mepris soit inattention, 
Either contempt or inattention. 
Le sage n'a ni amour ni haine, 
The ivise man hath neither love nor hatred. 

5. After quel, quelle, what. 

Ex. : duel accident, What an accident ! 

When can the article be altogether omitted?— By what words must the names 
of parents and relations be determined ?— Is the article used with titles or ad- 
dresses ?— With what sort of titles can it be used?— Is it used after soit!— After 
ni?— After what! 



nouns. 197 

6. After jamais, never ; when initial and followed by a noun 
which has an indefinite or partitive sense. 

Ex. : Jamais femme ne fut plus aimable, 
Never was a woman more amiable. 

And 7. When a list of articles is made, as in a bill or tariff. 

Remark. The article is also omitted in some proverbial 
sentences, which the learner will not have to construct, but 
may meet with in translating. 

Ex. : Pauvrete n'est pas vice, Poverty is no sin. 

N. B. In none of the above exceptions are the nouns used 
in a general sense. 

EXERCISE. 

The derivatives of mettre, to put, page 145. 

The river carried away houses, flocks, trees, bridges, &c. General, 
officers, soldiers, all promised that they would resist with admirable in- 
trepidity. Nations, praise the Lord ? Men, celebrate his glory ! Sin- 
ners, tremble at his voice ! Ol king of the earth and heaven, protect 
us. Father Clement, will you permit me an observation? Why do 
you not speak, brother John, are you sick? Sister Mary, have you ray- 
copy-book? Farewell, parents, friends, mountains, dales, woods, and 
streams ! I leave you, perhaps, for ever. I will show you the list of 
your father's books: Voltaire's romances, Boileau's poetry, Franklin's 
essays, funeral orations of Flechier, amusing fables, a theoretical and 
practical grammar of the French tongue, the Corsair, the battle of the 
frogs and the mice. Learn how we put our titles in our French copy- 
books. The dictation, the French verb, the letter, the composition, the 
parsing, a list of the irregular verbs, &c. Through either carelessness 
or mischief he always omits the dots over the i's. I take neither wine 
nor beer. He exposed neither parents nor friends. They have neither 
morality nor religion. What a learned man ! He does not admit the 
system of Copernicus. What a beautiful house ! Never was a gene- 
ral more beloved by his soldiers. Send that letter to our milk-man, fifty- 
fifth-street, village of Bloomingdale. 

on the words monsieur, madame, mademoiselle, and messietms } 
mesdames, mesdemoiselles. 

These words are compounded of the possessive adjective 
mon, ma, mes, and the words, sieur, sir ; dame, lady, demoi- 
selle, miss (an unmarried lady) ; but they are not always used 
as their etymology would indicate. 

1. Monsieur and messieurs, not only stand for sir, and sirs, 
gentlemen, when used as an apostrophe or answer and mister, 
master, messieurs, when followed by a proper name, but also 

I What are the words monsieur, madame, <fec, compounded oft 



198 NOUNS. 

signify gentleman, and gentlemen, when they are determined 
by an article or other word. 

Ex. : un monsieur, le monsieur, ce monsieur, 

a gentleman, the gentleman, that gentleman. 

des messieurs, les messieurs, ces messieurs, nos messieurs, 
some gentlemen, the gentlemen, these gentlemen, cur gentlemen. 

2. Madame stands for madam,, mesdames for ladies (unless 
it be known that none of them are married), mademoiselle for 
miss or madam (an unmarried lady) and mesdemoiselles 
for ladies, young ladies, (when it is known that none of them 
are married.) 

But these words are only used when addressing persons or 
when followed by a proper name. 

Ex. : Madame, Mademoiselle Smith. La belle Madame Felix. 
Madam, Miss Smith. The beautiful Mrs. Felix. 

The simple words dame, demoiselle, and their plurals an- 
swer for the words lady, young lady (unmarried), and their 
plurals, when determined in French by articles or other 
words. 

Ex. : une dame, la demoiselle, ces dames, vos demoiselles, 
a lady, the young lady, those ladies, y oar young ladies. 

N. B. The words monsieur, madame, <$°c. admit of no abbreviation, 
unless when writing the names of indifferent persons, and when there 
is no probability that they will ever see the word. When abbreviated 
they are spelt thus, Mr., Mme. or M r : , M™ e . 

Remark 1. Gentleman, lady, $c. when used to signify 
well-bred poo pie, are translated by the addition of the words, 
tomme il faut, as it ought to be. 

Ex. : Fie is a gentleman, Cestun homme comme il faut. 

2. Gentleman, meaning a man of probitv, of good beha- 
viour, is expressed by the words homme d'honneur. 

Ex. : You are not a gentleman, Vous unites pas un komme cPhonneur. 

3. Le sieur, la dame, la demoiselle, are used at law instead 
of Mr., Mrs,, Miss, and so in the plural. 

4. The words monsieur, madame, <fyc. are used in polite 
conversation before nouns of title, when that title keeps the 
place of the name of the person ; and also, before the word 
designating some one of the family of the person to whom 
you speak. 

Which of these words may be preceded by articles ?-— What is the French for* 
gentleman ?— For sir?— For madam? — For that lady? (fec-^-How do you express in 
French : your mother? 



NOUNS. 109 

Ex. : Monsieur le compte F., Messieurs les deputes, 
The earl F., The deputies, 

Madame la marquise, &c, Monsieur le docteur, 

The marchioness, tyc, Doctor, fyc. 

Monsieur voire pere, Madame votre epouse, 

Your father, Your wife, 

Mesdemoiselles vos soeurs, &c, 
Your sisters. 

5. Monsieur is sometimes joined to a noun to express differ- 
ent feelings ; such as, anger, derision, &c. 

Ex.: Ah! Monsieur le paresseux! M! y ou lazy fellow ! 

6. It is not polite in French to designate a person present by 
a demonstrative adjective or a personal pronoun. The words 
monsieur, madame, are used for that purpose, and accompa- 
nied by some gesture which points out the person. Yet the 
possessive adjectives are used in the plural. 

Ex. : Give this gentleman a chair, 
Donnez une chaise a monsieur. 
The lady says that you are very polite, 
Madame dit que vous etes Ires poli. 
I hope these ladies will remain, 
.Pespere que ces dames resteronL 

7. In French, as well as in Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and 
German, the third person is sometimes substituted for the se- 
cond ; but that mode is far from being as general in French as 
in the other languages mentioned. It ought to be made use of 
only on seeing a person for the first time, or after awhile, be- 
fore becoming well acquainted, unless that person be ver}' in- 
ferior to us. Yet the nominative of the verb thus used in the 
third person, can be but the words monsieur, madame, and 
mademoiselle, and never a personal pronoun, except in inter- 
rogative phrases, when monsieur, madame, or mademoiselle, 
are placed before the verb. This prevents from carrying on 
this construction farther than a few phrases, on account of the 
inelegant repetition of the same words. 

Ex.: Monsieur, n'est-il pas Fran^ais? 
Are you not a Frenchman, sir? 

EXERCISE. 

Connaitre, to know, to be acquainted with, page 143, and its derivatives, 
page 145. 

I know those ladies very well, but I have forgotten their names. A 
gentleman of my acquaintance went yesterday to Brooklyn, and met, 

How would you you express the words that lady, if the person spoken of wer« 
present?— How does politeness require that an unknown person should be ad- 
dressed? 



200 NOUNS. 

in the steam-boat, your father and sister. I have been introduced to* 
that gentleman, did you not know him? How are you, doctor? I am 
very well, I thank you, sir ; but how is your mother ? Young ladies ! 
I hope that you will not forget these important things. "Where are you 
going to place your ladies ? Those gentlemen will give them their seats., 
A young lady was singing that song last night at my father's house. 
Would you recognize her, if you should see her ? You acknowledge 
that she sang perfectly well. Where are these ladies going ? Ah ! you 
noisy fellow ! you have been punished. The lady who spoke to you 
yesterday, was this morning with the young lady who has sent you 
her album. Do you wish to go to London ? Yes, captain, I will go in 
your ship, and those young ladies will accompany me. Did you meet 
a lady or a gentleman ? I knew that woman when she was rich; she 
was a lady then. Ask that gentleman if he knows me. Do you know 
me madam ? No, sir, but I am acquainted with that young lady. 

N. B. Some substantives of number will be found among the adjec* 
tives. 



CHAPTER III. 

OF THE ADJECTIVE 

SECTION I. 

REMARKS ON A FEW PARTICULAR ADJECTIVES. 

The adjectives nu, bare; and demi, half; remain unaltered 
when placed before a noun, and joined to it by a hyphen, as, 
nu-pieds, bare-footed ; nu-tete, bare-headed ; demi-heure, half 
an hour, &c. 

N. B. The article un or une is placed before demi> and not after, as 
it is in the English. 

But they agree with the noun like other adjectives when they 
are placed after it ; as, il avait la tete nue, his head was bare; 
une heure et demie, one hour and a half. 

N. B. Demi, from the nature of its signification, cannot take the 
sign of the plural. 

Half 'before an adjective or participle is translated by a demi, 
or d moitie. 

Ex. : He is half dead, H est a moitie mort. 

The adjective feu, late; is sometimes placed before the arti- 
cle or the word which determines the following substantive 
and then remains invariable; as, feu la reine, the late queen; 
feu mon pere, my late father. But it agrees with that noun, 

What ii said of the adjective nu, bare?— Of demi, half?— Of/ro, late! 



ADJECTIVES. 201 

if the article or the other word which determines the noun, 
comes before it, as, lafeue reine, the late queen. 

N. B. Feu is placed after the article or possessive adjective •when it 
is intended to distinguish a deceased person from one having* the same 
title, who is still alive : It cannot be used in the plural. 

There are some compound nouns in which the adjective 
grand loses the e } and takes an apostrophe in the feminine: 
as, grand' mere, grand mother ; grand' messe, high mass. 
The?e, of course, are substantives, and are placed in diction- 
aries. 

To these can be added the following expressions : 

A grand' peine, with hard labour. 

la grand'' chambre, the high court. 

la grand 1 rue, the largest street. 

And some others construed with avoir and /aire, and placed 
in the gallicisms. 

Rule. Some adjectives are used as adverbs. They re- 
main unaltered, since their office is to modify verbs, and not 
to qualify nouns. They generally correspond in the two 
languages. 

Ex. Elle chante bas. She sings lav. 

II parle franc, ais He speaks French. 

Ces fleurs sentent eon. These flowers smell good. 

Some of these adjectives used as adverbs, are followed by 
other adjectives which they modify. 

Ex. De l'avoine clair-semee, Thin-s&icn oats. 

OF THE AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES OR PARTICIPLES WITH MORE THAN 

ONE NOUN. 

An adjective or participle frequently serves to qualify two 
or more substantives of different genders. 

If it be used to qualify substantives of the same gender, it 
must be put in the plural and agree with them in gender. 

Ex. Le roi et le ber^er sont egaux apres la mort. 
The king and the shepherd are equal after death. 

When the two substantives to which the adjective relates 
are of different genders, the adjective is to be put in the mas- 
culine plural. 

Ex. Mon pere et ma mere sont contens. 
My father and mother are contented. 

What is said of grand, great? — What is to be observed concerning adjectives 
used like adverbs ? — How can you make an adjective agree with two or more 
nouns ? — In what order must the nouns be u»ed when, being names of things^ 
Jhey are qualified by but one adjective; — How is it when the two substantive*, 
kave the same sense 1 



202 * ADJECTIVES. 

But when an adjective or participle relates to two or more 
nouns of different genders, applied to things, it is better to put 
the masculine noun immediately before the adjective ; as, the 
adjective being masculine, the difference between the two gen- 
ders would be more sensible if the feminine noun were imme- 
diately before the adjective. This, however, becomes useless 
with adjectives ending in e mute ; since these adjectives are 
the same in both genders, and also when the adjectives are 
separated from the nouns by a verb. 

Ex. : I have found my paper and pens spoiled. 
J'ai trouve mes plumes et mon papier gate's. 
I find this wine and beer detestable. 
Je trouve ce vin et cette Mere detestables. 

After several substantives having the same sense, the adjec* 
live agrees with the last only. 

Ex. : All his life has been but continual work and occupation. 

Toute sa vie n'a ete qu'un travail, qu'une occupation continuelle. 

In French, as well as in English, several singular adjectives^ 
^ach of which is applied to a single object, and followed by 
but one substantive, do not require that noun to be used in the 
pluraJ, because the phrase is elliptical. 

J3x# : The first and second story. Le premier et le second etage. 

Remark. Many French words are both substantives and 
adjectives, and can be used both with and without a noun, 
either in the masculine or the feminine gender, and in both 
numbers. They are found in dictionaries. Those ending in 
eur, which are formed from verbs are of this kind. 

It must be observed that they often correspond with an 
English present participle followed by a noun. 
Ex. : Un grondeur, A scolding man. 

Many adjectives can also be used as substantives, and are 
^preceded by the definite, indefinite, or partitive article, in 
both genders and numbers. They are principally those 
which are in English, used like substantives in the plural, 
and those besides which express moral qualities, except mo- 
nosyllables. 

Ex. : Un pauvre, A poor man. 

Le sae^e, The wise man. 

Ce petit paresseux, That lazy boy. 

Des avares, Avaricious persons. 

How is it when several singular adjectives apply each to a different object of 
the same kind 1— What are the words that can be used both, as substantives 
and adjectives? 



ADJECTIVES. 203 

™v h if abOT ? ad J ectives relate to persons only : but others 
which are also used like substantives, have a very extenSe 
salification which relates to all that is embraced by S 
meanings. These occur only in the singular number and 
among adject! ves of all classes. "numer, ana 

Ex.: Levrai, Ml that which is true. 

i-e Wane, The white colour. 

*n A adveib! eS Cam0t ^ COnsidered substantives if preceded by 

EXERCISE. 

The verb f aire, to do, to make, page 143 

W hat are you doing in that room ? Study your lesson Quick 7™ 

vl Y a our ee sl; f( P ono H t r lkI r c '' youn e &U «n&T§£»25 

first'premil Tl ^ m ^T are A ealous ' because I have had the 
^ P mr^ofS* n r U, ¥. 1,ldya,1 fu her auntar enot ^isued with 
£.^ , , sm p m S- T ney say that you sins false. That secret 

that mystery, that imprudent confidence/unworthy of our at entTon 

S Iheir cTaL e an Tr i0 H ^ ""S* The wS^-KSS 
Sdfork? TVfW T dS b T\ Have y° u found Ae stolen knife 

will not mifeTZj v / e IS a scoldln S woman, and you 

Tn iZle^t f!lf S T'T fe0 -n a perSon of that disposition. You are 
an insolent fellow, and I will punish you. What a lavish man t hi 

SiiS? a fo ° " ATO ~ me " *- foesTo'the world 
Sr a ^^t r t^ nene ^ Ilike ^^i S true. The rich 

SECTION II. 

OP THE PLACE OP ADJECTIVES. 

i«3?£ P rin ?'P al . rul es relating to the place of the adjective 
have been given in the first part, and may be again consumed 
Some pecul.ant.es relating to construction wm be glten 

An adjective placed before a noun, is more intimately con- 

fc What is said of those adjectives rela^„ things, used in the singular nam- 



204 ADJECTIVES. 

nected with it, and expresses the quality with more force 
That when it follows the substantive. But there are so many 
ns ances in which an adjective is necessarily placed before or 
She noun, that this difference is very seldom sensible. 

As the learner, however, becomes better acquainted with 
thf language; it is proper to observe that the construction of 
!ne senfencf often makes the place of the adjective a matter of 
taste, as will be illustrated by example. 

Ex. : The incomparable author of Ver-vert. 

L'incomparable auteur de Ver-vert. 

tw an adiective of five syllables is placed before a word 

of "wo because he phrase would not sound well if the word 

author'wei^e separated from the preposition de, and because 

the adjective would seem to qualify Ver-vert and not author, 

seem tot plac^d P w.thout.a y ,;y regard to the rule given, page 

two^igmficSfons determiued by" their place either before or 

a Tome\ n a°ve n that peculiar signification with one substantive 
nnt and others with all substantives of the same class with 
whfc'h they are joined. The latter will be mdicated by an 
asteiisk placed before them. 
N B It must ^understoo ^^J£2JSjE £{$ 

S^^^^M"^ fr ° m th ° Se ° f the foll ° W * 



ins: list. 



• un homme bon, which signifies a good 

Un bon homme u ig d , often used . un 

a simple artless man • ^^ ^ Um ig ^ most proper 

expression for this. 

-, „ n un homme brave 

un brave homme l hr aveman. 

on honest man nouvelle certaine 

*unecERTAiNEnou>elle ™e ne ws 

some sort of news inhabit cher 

*mon cher ami "" , 

j a ia m a a dear coat 

my dear fnend . commune 

une commune voix ^Indifferent voice 

a unanimous voice ' * crUeL 

*hmp1 cruel homme! 4 UC1 , 

•when placed after ?-A.re the rules cm ™J . chwge lts meaning f- 



ADJECTIVES. 



205 



Ma DERNieRE ann6e *Pann£e dernicrb 

the last year of any period last year 

une fausse corde une corde facsse 

a string out of twit a false string 

Faux is placed aft«r the noun to signify a thing- which is bad, of no ute, impro* 
per, by its nature. 



*un fier poltron 
a great coward 
*un furieux menteur 
an excessive liar 
un gal ant homme 
a clever man 
*un grand homme 
a great man 



*un poltron fier 

a proud coward 

*un lion furieux 

a furious lion 

un homme galant 

a man who is complaisant to the ladies 

*un homme grand 

a tall man 



Grand loses these peculiar acceptations, whatever may be its place, when it 
is accompanied by other words which determine its meaning. 



le grand air 

the air of high society 

le haut ton 

a haughty tone 

*un HONNeTE homme 

un honest man 

*un malhonn&te homme 

a dishonest man 

le jeune Scipion 

young Scipio 

mauvais air 

bad appearance 

*une MecHANTE 6pigramme 

a miserable epigram 

mort bois 

wood, good for nothing 

morte eau 

the lowest tides 

*un nouveau livre 

a neio book; another book 

*un pauvre auteur 

an author without merit 

*pauvre petit! 

poor child ! 

*un plaisant homme 

u whimsical, ridiculous man 

un petit homme 

a small man 

les propres termes 

the same words 

*propres mains 

own hands 



Pair grand 

a noble countenance 

le ton haut 

aloud tone 

*un homme honn£te 

a polite man 

*un homme malhonncte 

an impolite man 

Seipion le jeune 

Scipio the younger 

Pair mauvais 

wicked appearance 

*une epigramme mcchakte 

a wicked epigram 

bois MORT 

dead wood 

eau morte 

standing water 

*un livre nouveau 

a book lately published 

*un auteur pauvre 

an author without fortune 

*un petit pauvre 

a little beggar 

*un homme plaisant 

an agreeable, merry man 

un homme petit 

a mean man 

les termes propres 

the proper words 

*mains propres 

clean hands 



How would you express in French, a tall man? — An honest man 1 — A new bookl 
— What does un pauvre auteur signify 1 — Un pauvre petit? — Un enfant seuU—Les 
mains propres ? 

18 



206 ADJECTIVES. 

*un seul enfant *un enfant seul 

an only child a child alone 

*un simple domestique *un domestique simple 

a single servant a foolish servant 

^unique tableau ^tableau unique 

single 'picture unparalleled picture 

nn vilain homme un homme vilain. 

anunpleasant, ugly looking man a mean miser. 

N.-B. We always say une grosse femme for a large wo* 
man, and une femme sage, for an honest woman. An old 
man is represented by the substantive vieillard, and some- 
times by un homme dge, or un homme vieux, contrary to the 
r jle, page 71. 

Remark. An adjective added to a proper name, and con- 
nected with it 03/ an article, expresses a distinction between 
the person thus qualified and others of the same name. 
Ex. : Peter the Great, Pierre-le-grand, 

Bernard the rich, Bernard le riche, 

But the same adjective placed before the noun, only ex- 
presses qualification without distinction. 

Ex. : Le riche Bernard, The rich Bernard. 

Rule 1. Generally, when two adjectives qualify the same 
substantive, they must be placed after it, and connected to- 
gether by the conjunction et, which, in such a case, is always 
required in French. 

Ex.: It is a long tedious book, C'est un livre long et ennuyeux. 

2. If the adjectives be two of those that must be placed 
before the noun, according to the rules, pages 71 and 72, and 
those that have just been given, they will both come before 
the substantive, but without the conjunction. 

Ex. : Ji good little child, Un bon petit enfant. 

3. But if two or more adjectives come before the same 
noun, for euphony or other reasons, without being among 
those that must be placed there, the conjunction is used. 

Ex. : The celebrated and unfortunate Mary, 
La celthre et malheureuse Marie. 

4. Sometimes the same rules, page 71 and 72, require that 
one of the two adjectives should be placed before, and the 
other after the substantive. 

Ex. : Un grand chapeau bleu, A large blue hat. 

What does un tableau unique signify? — Charles le simple? — Le simple Charles? — 
How are two adjectives relating to the same noun generally placed %— Are they 
always placed so 1 — When not 1 



ADJECTIVES. 20T 

5i If more than two adjectives qualify the same noun, 
they generally come after it, and the conjunction et is prefixed 
to the last. 

Ex. : Une personne bonne, belle, et sage, 
A good, handsome, and wise person, 

6. It must be observed that the article must be repeated 
before every adjective, if each adjective qualifies a different 
substantive, although one only be expressed. 

Ex. : The first and the second volumes. 
Le premier et le second volume, 

7, But one article is sufficient when the adjectives qualify 
the same substantive. 

Ex. : The wise and pious Fenelon. Le sage et pieux Fenelon. 

N. B. The word generally is used in the above remarks as it is im- 
possible to give rules for all the exceptions that euphony occasions 
(either on account of the length or of the sound of adjectives) or for 
those which perspicuity of style requires. All that relates to elegance 
of style must be left to time and practice. 

EXERCISE. 

The derivatives of faire, page 145. 

That brave general, great in his victory as in his defeat, was pro- 
claimed the liberator of his country. He sent me a boy wicked as the 
plague, and extremely lazy. Aristides was an honest man. Socrates, 
at the last hour of his life, showed that he was a true philosopher. How 
would you say in French, he is a good man ? Penelope used to undo, 
during the night, the work that she had done during the day. They 
condemned him to the state-prison, last year, because he had false keys 
in his trunk. Did he not also counterfeit bank notes? Pliny, the 
younger, describes the first eruption of Vesuvius. Do not cry, poor 
child ! 1 will give you a new book. You will not spoil that book, by 
touching it with clean hands. Did you read the new novel ? That good 
old hermit lives happy in his cottsge. Sister, will you put on to-day 
your handsome green dress? That rich covetous old man will leave his 
wealth to lavish young nephews, who will spend that immense fortune 
in the course of two or three years. My aunt has a handsome round 
table which is strong and heavy. I purchased a spacious, convenient 
house. He 'is a tall, handsome man. Do you sell the large and small 
boots all at the same price. The brave and generous Henry did not 
stop the provisions destined for the besieged city. 

SECTION III. 

OF THE DEGREES OF SIGNIFICATION OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

Grammarians commonly reckon three degrees of significa- 
tion the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 

When is it necessary to repeat the article before each adjective ?— How are 
l&ree or more adjectives placed 1— How many degrees of signification are there* 



208 ADJECTIVES. 



OF THE POSITIVE. 

The positive is the adjective expressing the quality of aft. 
object, without any increase or diminution ; as, beau, hand- 
some ; grand, great. 

Those adjectives whose signification does not admit of 
comparison can be used but in the positive signification ; and 
every English phrase, in which such adjectives are mo^ 
dified. by adverbs, should be altered before being translated. 
Thus, instead of very excellent, say only excellent, and instead 
of more perfect, simply better, &c. 

The list of these is more numerous in French, than in En- 
glish, they are: divin, divine; enorme, enormous; eternel, 
eternal; excellent, excellent; extreme, extreme; immense^ 
immense; mortel, mortal; immortel, immortal; parfait, per- 
fect; prodigieux, prodigious; superbe, beautiful; suprtme y 
supreme; unique, only; universe!, universal ; and all others 
which signify by themselves the highest degree. There are 
examples of magnifique, magnificent, in the comparative, but 
none in the superlative. 

N. B, Some phrases on these adjectives will be found in the exercise 
en the comparative. 

OF THE COMPARATIVE. 

The comparative is so called because it draws a comparison 
between two or many objects. When two things are com- 
pared, the one is either superior, inferior, or equal to the other ; 
hence, three sorts of comparison, that of superiority, inferi- 
ority, and equality. 

These three kinds of comparison are marked in French 
with the adverbs plus, more ; moins, less ; and aussi, as, or so. 

The conjunctions than and as, which join the two adjec- 
tives compared, are translated into French by que or qu\ 

Plus, moins, and aussi, must be repeated before all the ad- 
jectives that form the first part of the comparison, and must 
never come after them. 

EXAMPLES. 
COMPARATIVE OF SUPERIORITY. 

La rose est plus belle, que la violette, 
The rose is more beautiful than the violet, 

COMPARATIVE OF INFERIORITY. 

La violette est moins belle que la rose, 
The violet is less beautiful than the rose. 

What is the positive 1— What are the adjectives that can be used but in tb.5 
positive? — What is the comparative ? — Ho-yv many sorts of comparatives ar^ 
tfcpre }— Jiow are they marked \ 



ADJECTIVES. 



209 



COMPARATIVE OF EQUALITY. 

La tulipe est aussi belle que la rose, 
The tulip is as beautiful as the rose. 

Remark 1. The indefinite article is sometimes placed after 
the adjective in English: it must always precede the adverb 
that modifies the adjective in French. 

Ex. : Ua aussi grand homme qu' 'Alexandre, 
As great a man as Alexander. 

Remark 2. In English, the comparative of superiority of 
many adjectives is formed by adding the syllable er, or simply 
r, to the positive; as, rich, richer; fine, finer. In French, all 
comparatives of superiority are formed by means of the com* 
parative adverb plus, as above. 

Ex. : Mon oncle fut plus sage que votre pere, 
My uncle was wiser than your father. 

Three adjectives are excepted ; meilleur, better ; fire, worse ; 
moindre, less, or smaller, for which a special exercise will be 
given. 

Rule. By, after a comparison, and expressing the difference, 
is rendered in French by de. 

Ex. : Vous etes plus grand de trois polices. 
You are taller by three inches. 

EXERCISE. 

I The verb pouvoir, to be able, and the note relating to that verb, p. 140 and 141. 

I cannot understand how I am more fortunate than my neighbour, 
when he is as rich as Croesus and 1 am as poor as Diogenes. Miss D. 
is as amiable as her cousin. My father is as rich as my uncle, but he 
cannot make the same use of his riches. Mrs. P. is riot less polite than 
her daughter. He can give us a most excellent breakfast, let us stay 
here. Paris is not so populous as London. My daughter is taller than 
your son by two inches. That board is shorter by two feet. Your cousin 
is less noble than you. She is handsomer and more learned than her 
sisters. Lucia is taller and more proud than her sister. Wine is better 
for health than brandy. Can you tell me where I can find a clerk more 
steady than your cousin ? Where can you find a more beautiful situa- 
tion? I will wager you a hundred dollars, that our house is wider than 
your garden by three feet. I shall not be able to go to the country to- 
morrow, if the weather be warmer than to-day. I am sure that it will be 
cooler by three or four degrees. They were not able to make a longer 
residence in our house. I have not been able to make as good a bargain 
as the man who lives opposite. May I translate a more difficult book ? 

The three words which are comparatives in themselves re* 
quire some explanation. 

What are the adjectives that express a comparison by themselves?— How it 
hy expressed after a comparative ? 

18* 



210 ADJECTIVES. 

Meilleur, better, is the comparative of good, and is used! in^ 
*tead of plus bon, which is never said. 

N. B. The English word cheap is rendered in French by a honmarM j 
its comparative of superiority will then be a meilleur marche. 

Early is translated- into French by de bonne heure, earlier is then de 
meillture heure. 

Moindre means plus petit, less, or smaller. 

Both comparatives are used, but they have not the same meaning* 
Moindre is made use of generally when the thing qualified is less than 
another already small. It has therefore more force than plus petit, for 
the latter is the expression of the comparison of inferiority between two 
objects, the larger of which may not be small. Moindre is most generally- 
used after several comparisons, and does not sound well in common 
conversation, at the beginning of a phrase. 

Fire signifies plus mauvais, worse, more wicked. 

The distinction which is made between moindre and plus petit, exists 
also between pire and plus mauvais: pire is worse than real had ; plus 
mauvais is worse than another object that may not be utterly bad. 

N. B. The English words better, worse, and less are not only the compa- 
ratives of the adjectives good, bad, and little, but yet of the adverbs well, 
badly and Utile The learner will not be apt to confound these different 
parts of speech, if 1 e rec allect that an adjective qualifies a noun, while 
an adverb modifies a verb. 

The comparative adverbs, better, worse, and less, zremieux, pis, and 
moins. 

All that relates to adverbs will be found explained under that part of 
speech. 

EXERCISE. 

; The verb voir, to see, page 140. 

I see that you are in a better situation now than you were last year, 
and your conduct satisfies me. You undoubtedly see the effects of good 
conduct, since yew are admitted into better company. These sweet- 
meats are good,', but those apples are better. You are wicked but you 
have been worse. 'My expense is small, and will become smaller. His 
condition has not been worse. That block of marble is less than the 
Other. You will see that the weather will be worse to-morrow. Have 
you ever seen a hand smaller than that young lady's h*nd ? We saw 
in the museum better pictures than those landscapes. Bad friends are 
worse than wise enemies. Are you not better than your friend ? 
Those books are che-'p enough, but you would have had them cheaper 
at auction. He will be here earlier to-morrow, particularly if you 
awake him. Do you go to church early on Sundays? 

OF THE SUPERLATIVE. 

The superlative expresses the quality in the highest state, 

What is the peculiarity of meilleur ?— Of moindre ?— Of pirel— What is the differ- 
ence between moindre and plus petit ?— Between pire and plus mauvais?— Are the 
adverbs better, worse, and less, expressed hkethe adjectives ?— How are they ex 
pressed ?— What is the superlative 1 



ADJECTIVES. 211 

or in a very high state ; hence there are two sorts of superla- 
tives, the relative and the absolute. 

OF THE RELATIVE SUPERLATIVE. 5 

The relative superlative is formed- by prefixing the articles 
le, la, les, and the contractions of this article with the preposi- 
tions de and a, or the possessive adjectives mon, ton, son, $c, 
to the French comparative, that is to say, to the adverbs plus 
or • moins, thus standing for most and least, or to the adjectives, 
meillcur, moindre, and pire, corresponding in this last instance 
to the English adjectives, best, least, andworst. It is called re- 
lative^ because it expresses a relation to other objects. 
Ex. : Paris est la plus belle ville, Paris is the finest city. 

L'homme le plus courageux, The most courageous man, 
Mon plus fideie ami, My most faithful friend. 

Rule 1. Since the article or possessive adjective is the only 
distinguishing mark between the relative superlative and the 
comparative, this article or possessive adjective cannot be omit- 
ted under any circumstances whatever, even when the adjective 
follows the noun, which very often occurs. The article must 
therefore be repeated in these instances, but if the noun be de- 
termined by a possessive adjective, the relative superlative will 
be indicated by an article, instead of repeating the possessive 
adjective. Plus and moins must be likewise repeated. 
Ex. : The most amiable lady. La dame la plus aimable. 

My most sincere vows, Mes vceux les plus sinceres, 

Rule 2. Sometimes the substantive which the superlative 
qualifies is understood, and it is important to observe, that the 
adjective must agree with that noun, and not with the one which 
follows. The same occurs in English. 

Ex.: The most skilful of our generals, 
Le plus habile de nos generaux. 

There are even phrases that are quite elliptical, and in which 
no substantive appears to have been thought of. The words, 
'what is, may be however understood, and the verb etre that 
follows the adjective is always preceded by ce. 

Ex. : Le plus singulier c'est que vous n'etiez pas la, 

The most singular is that you were not there. 

Rule 3. The preposition in must be translated into French, 
as if it were of, after a relative superlative, and all other adjec- 
tives expressing a superlative or individuality. 

"What does the relative superlative signify ?— How is it marked ?— Can the ar- 
ticle ever be suppressed before a relative superlative ? — With what word doe» 
the adjective agree when the substantive qualified is understood]— How is in ex- 
pressed after a relative superlative] 



212 ADJECTIVES. 

Ex. : The handsomest man in the city, 
Le plus bet homme de la ville. 
The first in the school, Le premier de Vicole, 

EXERCISE. 

The verb vouhir, to be willing, page 140, and the accompanying remark, par- 
ticularly what relates to please. 

He wants to marry the handsomest young lady in the city, but per- 
haps she will not want him, because he is the most conceited man in 
the world. They may be the best singers in New- York, but they are 
certainly not the best actors. If you were my best friend, as you say, 
you would not wish my ruin. G ive that riddle to the most learned man, 
and he will not guess it. They saw at Palmyra the ruins of the largest 
temple known. The dog is the best friend of the poor. He is ugly, you 
say, but you speak of the least of his imperfections. The worst of all 
evils is poverty. You met in that man your most terrible and most 
daring antagonist. The most astonishing was that you did not speak to 
him of that circumstance. Your sisters are the most charming persons 
in your family. We cannot consent to your proposal : it is the most ex- 
travagant thing in the world. Please to give your ladies my compli- 
ments. Our most inveterate enemies do not frighten us. What do you 
want ? Please to speak. They want the largest and most convenient 
room in the house ! I am not willing to give it. The most remarkable 
is his patience. I will give a premium to the most studious of the scho- 
lars. One of the principal members in our church wishes to quit it. 

OF THE SUPERLATIVE ABSOLUTE. 

The superlative absolute is formed by putting tres, forU 
Men, very; or, extremern.ent ,extremely ; infiniment, infinitely j 
le plus,ihe most;Ze moms, the least; lemieux, the best, before 
the adjective. It is called absolute, because it does not express 
any relation to other objects. 

EXAMPLE. 

Londres est une tres belle ville, London is a very fine city. 

N. B. Tres and fort have nearly the same signification, except that; 
fort marks a stronger affirmation ; but lien seems to be employed to 
mark the expression of the judgment of the person who speaks, rather 
than an opinion generally admitted ; it therefore expresses admiration 
or surprise. Thus, speaking of Voltaire, the following phrase: Citato 
un homme tres savant ; or fort savant, would answer better than Men 
savant ; but in addressing a lady, it would be better to say, Madame, 
,vous etes Hen aimable, or bien bonne, as bien is intended to express what 
we feel. 

" What is a superlative absolute ?— How is it marked ?— What is the difference 
between tres, fort, and bien? 



ADJECTIVES, 213 

Bien answers for a most, used in exclamation. 

Ex. : You are a most singular man, 

Vous etes tin homme bien singulier. 

Remark 1. All the above adverbs, except tres, are indiffer- 
ently used before adjectives and past participles. Thus, fort, 
bien , extremement, and infiniment, answer for very much y 
well, or other adverbs used in English before past participles. 

The reason of the exclusion of tres is, that this word has been intro~ 
duced into the French language only to modify adjectives, and in no in- 
stance to modify verbs. The past participle being a part of a verb, it 
would sound strange to hear it after tres. This will sufficiently explain 
the following remarks. 

Remark 2. Tres can be used before adjectives derived 
from past participles ; such as, fdche, sorry ; occupe, busy, 
&c. ; but as in these instances jort would answer just as well, 
it is more prudent to use it, unless it be known that tres is 
correct before the adjective in the sentence. 

Remark 3. Tres must be always followed by an adjective. 
Thus, the English very, used alone as a reply to, or an affirma- 
tion of what precedes, must be translated by beaucoup, or any 
other adverb. 

Remark 4. The learner is particularly requested to dis- 
tinguish between le plus and le m oins, forming the relative 
superlative, and the same words forming the superlative 
absolute. 

The former are represented in English by the most and the 
least, the latter by most and least, without the articles. 

The difference in sense is, that the relative superlative is the 
result of a comparison between the object which it qualifies, 
and others of the same kind ; as, You are the most extraordi- 
nary man; the superlative absolute is the result of a compari- 
son between a person and himself, or an object and itself, 
drawn at different periods ; as, / cannot bear him, even when 
he is most polite, viz. as polite as he can be. 

The difference in construction is, that the article must agree 
in gender and number with the noun, when the adjective is in 
the relative superlative, while it is invariably le when the su- 
perlative is absolute. 

Ex. : Cette dame est la plus aimable, That lady is the most amiable* 
Je ne la trouve pas aimable, meme quand elle est le plus gaie, 
I do not find her amiable y even when she is most gay. 

Can tres be used before a past participle 1 — Why ? — Can it be used alone T — 
What is the difference between the superlative absolute expressed by le plui gj 
letnQinSjdLnd the relative superlative expressed by the samewordi? 



214 ADJECTIVES. 

N. B. This last construction is not very frequently employed, unless 
with adjectives which are the same in both genders; In other cases, it 
is better to choose another mode of expression. 

EXERCISE. 

The verb savcir, to know, page 140, and the explanation of the difference 
between savoir and connaitre, page 141. 

That man is very rich, but he is not very much esteemed, because all 
the merchants know how he has gained that money. A woman seldom 
knows how to keep a secret, even when she wishes to be most discreet. 
You are very polite, sir, and I do not know how I shall be able to requite 
your kindness. O, Father of all creatures ! thou art infinitely good and 
merciful. I am extremely sorry, madam, if you think that I knew the 
cause of your silence. You are very impertinent, and I' will know 
your name. He is not very strong, but he is extremely skilful. I know 
that you were very much surprised when you heard me sing. Have 
you not been well pleased with his conversation? They are not as good 
scholars as their eldest brother, even when they are most attentive. Do 
you know if they are the most attentive children in the school? You 
can always perceive a mark of sorrow in his looks, even when he is 
least unfortunate. Know that self-love is a very bad counsellor* 

SECTION IV. 
REGIMEN OF THE ADJECTIVES. 

Some adjectives have a regimen ; that is to say, a noun or a 
verb necessary to complete their sense, which would be vague 
and undetermined without it ; as, a man worthy of praise ;, or 
worthy of commanding. That noun or verb is called the re- 
gimen of the adjective. 

The regimen of an adjective is not always indispensable, as 
in the above example. In some instances, a reginien is added 
to an adjective, in order to Give it a peculiar meaning- 
All these adjectives are connected with their regimens by 
prepositions. 

Some require de, others a, pour, avec, dans, $c. 
Those which require the same prepositions as in English, 
need not be placed here. But a list will be given of those 
which are followed by a different preposition, or which have 
one in French and none in English. 

N. B. The preposition de answers for of from, with, and by. The 
preposition a stands for to and at, in, before a present participle, and even 
for to that precedes the English infinitive, unless the adjective be one of 
those that are excepted. 

De stands for at after verbs signifying raillery, astonishment, or anger* 

vyhat is the regimen of adjectives 1— Can a verb be called a regimen? 



ADJECTIVES. 



215 



I list of adjectives which do not receive in French the same preposition 
which follows them in English, illustrated by example. 



Adroit a profiter des circonstances 
Ajuste a sa taille 
Approchant de la verite 
Celebre par or pour son courage 
Curieux de voir 
Dedaigneux n'apprendre 
Etranger en medecine 
Etranger aux intrigues 
Fache de l'accident 
Fori de mes principes 
Fort au jeu 
Fort sur I'histoire 
Ignorant en mathematiques 
Impatient d' arriver 
Incompatible avec nos moeurs 
Inconciliable avec le bon sens 
Inconsolable de cette perte 
Indulgent a or pour ses enfans 
Inquiet de voir le cours des affaires 
Inquiet sur mes enfans 
Insensible a la honte 
Insolent avec son pere 
Interesse a votre succes 
Paresseux d' ecrire 
Poli avec les dames 
Propre a la guerre 
Ravi de vous voir 
Reconnaissant de vos bontes 
Redevable de votre education 
Sensible a vos bontes 
Sourd a ma voix 
Surpris de la nouvelle 



Skilful in profiting by circumstances 
Fitted fop., his shape 
Something like truth 
Celebrated for his courage 
Curious to see 
Who disdains Toleam 
Ignorant of medicine 
Unacquainted with intrigues 
Sorry for the accident 
Strong in my principles 
Superior in playing 
Well versed in history 
Who knows but little of mathematics 
Impatient to arrive 
Incompatible with our manners 
Irreconcileable to good sense- 
Inconsolable for that loss 
Indulgent to his children 
Uneasy about the course of affairs 
Uneasy about my children 
Insensible to shame 
Insolent to his father 
Interested™ your success 
Lazy in writing 
Polite to the ladies 
Fit for war 
Overjoyed to see you 
Grateful for your kindness 
Indebted for your education 
Sensible of your kindness 
Heedless of my voice 
Surprised at the news 



N. B. Participles require the same prepositions as verbs, for which 
particular rules are given. 

Remark 1. Many adjectives, according to the manner in 
which they are used, require the preposition de or a before a 
verb ; viz. the preposition de, when the verb that follows the 
adjective in English is qualified by that adjective, and the pre- 
position a, when the adjective qualifies a noun either expressed 
or understood. The same adjectives require the preposition d 
before nouns or pronouns. 



Why are some adjectives sometimes followed by dt and sometimes by d? 



§JI6 ADJECTIVES. 

Ex. : It is good to eat fruit. [To eat fruit is good. J 
II est bon de manger du fruit. 
That fruit is good to eat, 
Ce fruit est bon a manger. 

N.B. In the first of these two phrases, the verb to be being impersonal^ 
the pronoun it is expressed by il. 

The learner must look at what is said of the impersonal Verbs, page 129, un- 
less he obtains a short explanation from the teacher, which will be sufficient for 
the present. 

Remark 2. As it is a general rule that an adjective quali-* 
fying a following infinitive is connected with it by the prepo- 
sition de,many adjectives have two regimens, and govern two 
different prepositions in the same sentence. 

Ex. : It is dangerous for young people to be far from their parents, 
II est danger \eux pour lesjeunes gens tfetre loin de leur parens. 

N. B. The prepositions de and a will be spoken of under the head of 
that part of speech. 

Rule. A noun may be governed by two adjectives, pro- 
vided they do not require different regimens ; as, cet homme est 
utile et cher a sa famille, that man is useful and dear to his 
family; but it would be incorrect to say, cet homme est utile 
et cheri de sa famille, that man is useful and beloved by his 
family ; because the adjective utile governs the preposition d, 
and cheri governs de. 

EXERCISE. 

The verb venir, to come, page 137, 

Captain Fitch was absent from the city, but I wrote to him that I 
was impatient to see him ; and he came last night, very much sur- 
prised, as he said, at my. impatience. But he was overjoyed to learn 
that his brother had written to me, and added, that he was sensible of 
my attention, and of his fault. When I come here I always dine 
well, and yet I am not accustomed to your dishes. Do you not think 
they are preferable to the daily fare of your boarding-house? Your 
brother will come to-night, I hope, and we will learn news of our 
friends. I am curious to know how John, who is celebrated for his 
impatience, has received that young man, who is liable to show con- 
tempt for strangers. He always comes to church early, and yet he is> 
never punctual in fulfilling his other duties. James's master came 
here yesterday, and told me that he is uneasy about your nephews. 
They are lazy in studying, insolent to their teachers, and insensible 
to punishment. I am indebted to you for your attention. They will 

And when is one of these prepositions to be used in preference to the other? — 
Can an adjective be followed by two prepositions ?— Are adjectives of measure 
expressed in French as they are in English ? 



ADJECTIVES. 217 

fcot be fit for commerce, and it would be better for their father to send 
them" to war. It is not good for children to eat so much fruit. Your 
advertisement has been inserted in the paper. That man was blind in 
his desires, although bowed down under the weight of years. That 
fight was a spectacle horrible to look at. It is dreadful for a man not 
to be able to move. The doctor has not yet come. Is he generally 
punctual in visiting his patients. Weakness is incompatible with 
liberty. 

SECTION V. 

OF ADJECTIVES OF MEASURE. 

There is a difference in construction between the French 
and the English manner of expressing measure or dimension, 
which will be well understood by comparing the following 
phrases :— - 

A tower two hundred feet high, or in height, 

Uiie tour de deux cents pieds de haut, or hauteur ; or, 

Une tour haute de deux cents pieds. 

N. B. The first mode is the more elegant. 

When the English phrase is constructed with the verb 
to be, it is translated into French by the verb avoir ; as fol- 
lows : — 

The walls of our house are two feet thick, 

Les murs de notre maison ont deux pieds d' epaisseur. 

Remark 1. The conjunction and, when it connects the 
different measures of the same object, is often expressed by 
sur. 

Remark 2. The preposition in, used when mentioning di- 
mension, is translated by de. 

Ex. : Three feet in diameter, Trois pieds de diametre. 

exercise. 

The derivatives of venir, page 138. 

Will twenty men be sufficient for digging a ditch thirty feet wide, 
three feet deep, and two hundred feet long, if thirty men dug a ditch 
a hundred and fifty feet long, thirty-six feet wide, and five feet deep 2 
The Ganges is in that place twenty miles wide. We agreed that he 
should supply me loith sticks of wood two feet long, and these sticks 
are three feet and a half long. That table which is but three feet wide, 
does not suit me. I have seen, in Ohio, trees two hundred feet high, 
and forty-five in circumference. A certain navigator speaks of a tree 



Give an example of the adjective of measure in French?— How is the con- 
junction and often expressed ?— How is the preposition in expressed when men- 
tioning dimensions or measure ? 

19 



218 ADJECTIVES. 

two hundred and ninety feet high, and eighteen in diameter. When 
he came back, they shut him in a dark prison, which was scarcely 
four feet high and three wide. 

ADJECTIVES OF NUMBER. 

All that has been said of the adjectives of number (see page 
83, and following) must now be remembered. 

Rule. When mentioning the days of the month, the French 
make use of the cardinal number instead of the ordinal num- 
ber, and say le onze Avril, the eleventh of April, and not le 
le onzieme ; le vingt cinq du mois prochain, the twenty-fifth 
of next month, and not le vingt-cinquieme, &c. Except, 
however, that instead of Vun du mois, they say le premier, 
the first day of, &e., and sometimes le second, though not so 
well, for le deux. 

Remark. The English preposition of, when immediately 
followed by the name of a month, is most generally omitted 
in French, as above, le onze Avril, instead of le onze 
d?Avril. 

Rule. The cardinal numbers arg also used for the ordinal, 
in speaking of the order of the sovereigns ; as, Louis Seize, 
George Trois ; Louis the Sixteenth, George the Third. Ex- 
cept the first two of the series ; as Henri premier, George 
second ; Henry the first, George the second. 

Remark that the English article the is not expressed in 
French. 

The emperor, Charles the fifth, and pope Sixtus the fifth, 
are known under the names of Charles -quint and Sixte- 
quint- as a distinction from other sovereigns. 

Rule. On is never represented in French with expressions 
q[ time. 

exercise. 

The verb tenir, to hold, and its derivatives, page 137 and 138. 

He died on the fifteenth of January, and was buried on the seven* 
teenth. My father will be here on the fifth of next month. Come on 
the first of July, and I will be disengaged. The unfortunate Louis 
the Sixteenth was led to the scaffold on the twenty-first of January, 
one thousand seven hundred and ninety-three. Francis the First and 
Charles the Fifth, were worthy rivals. When that warrior died, he 
was holding in his hand the portrait of his wife. This house belongs 
to me since the eleventh of June. He obtained her consent on the 
sixth of August, eighteen hundred and twenty-one, and became her 

In what instance are the ordinal numbers translated into French by the car- 
dinal?— How do you translate into French Charles the First 1 .— Are collective* 
destributive, and proportional numbers, nouns or adjectives 1 



ADJECTIVES. 



219 



husband on the fourteenth of the same month. Louis the Twelfth, 
a king of France, was surnamed the father of his people. Kis note 
will be due on the twenty-first of next September, but he will pay me 
in October, for I know that he has no money now. How did you 
spend the fourth of July? Henry the Fourth was one of the best 
kings of France; but Louis the Eleventh was extremely cruel. 

SECTION VI. 



OP COLLECTIVE, DISTRIBUTIVE, AND PROPORTIONAL NUMBERS. 

All the above numbers are nouns and not adjectives. 
Collective numbers are those which express a certain quan- 
tity forming a whole. They are as follows : — 

unite 



couple 
trio 



unit 

couple 

trio 



quarantaine 


two score 


cinquantaine 
soixantaine 


two score and a 

half 
three score 


un cent 


one hundred 


centaine 


precisely 
one hundred 


un millier 


one thousand 


myriade 
million 


one myriad 
one million 


milliard, or 


one thousand 


billion 


millions 


trillion 


trillion 



demi-douzaine half a dozen 
huitaine week 

neuvaine nine days of 

prayer 
dizaine half a score 

douzaine doztn 

quinzaine fifteen, a 

fortnight 
vingtaine a score 

trentaine a score and a 

half 

Remark. The above numbers, except in trade, have a doubt- 
ful signification. Thus une vingtaine de personnes means 
about twenty persons. 

But dizaine, douzaine, used in trade, signify exactly ten 
and twelve; un cent, un millier, one hundred, one thousand; 
the two latter are also used for a hundred pounds, and a 
thousand pounds. 

Rule. Collective numbers take the sign of the plural, and 
must be connected with the following nouns by the preposi- 
tion de ; as, trois douzaines d^oeufs, three dozen of eggs; des 
myriddes oVinsecles, myriads of insects. 

They must also take "the preposition de before other num- 
bers ; as, une dizaine de mille dollars, about ten thousand 
dollars. 

Remark. These numbers, being nouns and not adjectives, 
cannot be used without being determined by an article or some 

How are collective numbers used 1— What sense have they generally ?— By 
what must they be determined ?— By what are they followed ? 



220 ADJECTIVES. 

of the adjectives which determine nouns. But, except dizaine y 
douzaine, cent, and millier, they are scarcely ever preceded 
by any other article or adjective than un, or une, or by the 
preposition par, by ; as, une soixantaine, about three score, 
par cinquantaines, by fifties. 

As for dizaine, douzaine, cent, and millier, which express 
precise numbers, they are determined by any of the articles 
or adjectives ; as, cette douzaine de limes, that dozen books,, 
le cent de paille que vous me vendUes, the hundred weight of 
straw which you sold me, &c. 

The distributive numbers are those which express the differ- 
ent parts of a whole ; as, la moitie, the half; le tiers, the third ; 
le quart, the quarter; un cinquieme, a fifth; and so on, al- 
ways using ordinal numbers, as in English, 

Distributive numbers take the sign of the plural ; as, les 
quatre cinquiemes, four-fifths. 

N. B. . The learner must observe the difference between the adjec- 
tive demi, half, and the substantive moitie. The former is always 
followed by a noun which it qualifies, as, une demi-gourde, half a dol- 
lar, or which is understood, as, un mille et demi, for un mille et demi- 
mille, one mile and a half ; while moitie, being a noun, not only does 
not qualify, but also may itself be qualied ; as, la plus grosse moitii 9 
the larger half. 

Proportional numbers denote the progressive increase of 
things. They are le double, the double; le triple, the treble; 
le quadruple, le quintuple, le sextuple, le decuple, ten-fold; 
le centuple, a hundred-fold. 

The following are very seldom used. Septuple, seven-fold ; 
octuple, eight-fold ; nonuple, nine-fold. 

Proportional numbers cannot extend further than the above 
few, not being, as in English, formed from the cardinal num- 
bers. They may be translated into French as in the following 
example : — 

Those seeds will bring forth thirty-fold, 
Ccs graines rapport eront trente pour un. 
There is also another kind of number which requires the 
attention of the learner. Some grammarians call it the num- 
ber of repetition. 

Ex. : une fois once 

deux fois twice 

trois fois thrice, or three times 

quatre fois four times 

and so on, always using the word fois for the English word 
times. 

What do distributive/ numbers signify?— What is the difference between moitit 
and derm ?— What are proportional numbers ?— Are they as numerous in French 
as in English !— Why ?— What are the numbers of repetition \ 



ADJECTIVES. 221 

N. B. The adverb plus, more ; after these numbers, is pre- 
ceded by the preposition de; as, ten times more, dix fois de 
plus; but the phrase is more generally construed with encore, 
as follows : once more, encore une fois. 

EXERCISE. 

The verb ouvrir, to open, and derivatives, pages 135 and 138. 

How many eggs shall I put into your basket ? three dozen or two 
score ? We discovered about sixty men on a plain ; we sent a dozen 
dragoons against that troop, and after a fight of about fifteen minutes, 
they abandoned the field of battle. They opened their store on the first, 
of May, and on the twentieth of August following they had sold goods 
for about thirty thousand dollars. They possess now three millions of 
francs. We will discover the land within a fortnight. When I open 
the door you always scold me. Open it entirely then ; but do not leave 
it half-opened. I told you the same thing twice yesterday, and I re- 
peated it three times more to-day. I want a thousand nails. The half 
of four is two. The three-fifths of twenty-five are fifteen. The seventh 
of twenty-eight is equal to the tenth of forty, or to the two-thirds of six, 
or to the fourth of sixteen. If you give your money to the poor, God 
will return you double. This corn will yield a hundred-fold. My 
money will bring the quadruple. If, instead of reading your lesson 
two or three times, you had taken the book ten or twelve times, you 
would not have been punished. The seeds that fell into good ground 
brought forth sixty-fold. If you go there once more, you will be 
fatigued. 

N. B. It will be necessary to discontinue for awhile the study of the 
irregular verbs, in order to learn the different kinds of verbs which will 
soon be wanted. The irregular verbs will be re-assumed as soon as the 
learner may have become able to use any of the different kinds of verbs. 
Industrious scholars may nevertheless learn in the lists, pages 135, 137, 
140, 143, and 146, all those with which they might wish to be 
acquainted. 



CHAPTER IV. 
O F T H E P R O N O U N S. 

SECTION I. 
PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

T Of the repetition of Personal Pronouns. 

Rule 1. The personal pronouns of the first and second 
person, nominatives to verbs, are repeated before every verb 
to which they relate in the sentence. 

How is more expressed after these numbers 1— What are the pronouns that 
must be repeated before every verb when nominatives ? 

19* 



222 PRONOUNS. 

Ex. : I went to his house and gave him your letter, 
J'allai a set maison et je lui donncti voire lettre. 
You saw him and did not bow to him, 
Vous le vites et vous ne le saludies pas. 

N. B. Many of the French writers suppress these pronouns for ele- 
gancy or sound's sake, when the verbs are in the same tense, and all 
affirmative ; but as this is a mere matter of taste, strangers are advised 
always to repeat the pronouns of these persons. 

Rule 2. The pronouns of the third person are not gene- 
rally repeated before every verb ; but they must be, 

1. When the verbs have different objectives ; 

2. When one of the verbs is affirmative and another nega- 
tive; 

3. When the verbs are separated by incidental sentences ; 
And, 4. When tjiey are too distant from one another. 

Ex. : He came and told me, II vint et me dit. 

He wishes and wishes not, II vent et il ne vent pas. 

She saw you and spoke to me, Ellevousvit etelle meparla. 
He broke my watch while I was absent, and sent it to his 

watchmaker, 
Il.cassa ma menire pendant que fetais absent^ el il Venvoya a son 

horloger. 

N. B. If the personal pronoun which is repeated be preceded by a 
conjunction, it is better to repeat the conjunction also. 

Rujje 3. All personal pronouns which are objectives to 

several verbs, must be repeated before each verb. 

NiB. This rule must not be applied to several past participles used 
in succession. 

Ex. : They seized and imprisoned him, 
II le saisirent et V emprisonnerent. 

Remark. When the two verbs are in the imperative, in 
the same person, and joined together by the conjunction et or 
em, it is considered elegant to place the second pronoun before 
the verb. 

Ex. : Polish and repolish it -continually, 
Polissez-le sans-cesse et le repolissez. 

EXERCISE. 

The learner must be able to use the verb se repentir, to repent, affirmatively, 
page 126, and must understand all that is said of pronominal verbs. 

I will study and learn my lesson to-night. That young lady is ex- 
tremely amiable ; butl think that you admire and flatter her too much. 

What are those that may not be repeated 1 In what instances must the pro- 
nouns of the third person be repeated ?~-Must all pronouns when objectives b© 
repeated with every verb ? 



pronouns. 223 

We met your brother and bowed to him, but he looked at us and walk- 
ed as if he wished to insult us. He shall repent of that rudeness 
fopeak to him or write to him on that subject. He told me that he had 
met two persons who had bowed to him, but that he looked at them and 
did not know them. She offends her mother, and afterwards repents 
lnen she cries ■ she docs not eat ; she obtains pardon for her fault, and 
soon alter commits it again. Mary ! you may take those spoons and 
put them m my drawer immediately. They have repented and pro- 
mised that they would be better. He natters and nraises me. She haa 
encouraged and rewarded me generously. She has pleased and 
ciiarmea me. 

SECTION II. 
PARTICULAR RULES ON THE PRONOUNS. 

The personal pronouns, either nominatives or objectives to 
the verbs, are not always expressed according to the list given 
in the First Part, as will be explained in this chapter. In many 
circumstances they must be used as in the following list :— 

I or me is expressed by mo { 

thou " thee " tQ { 

he " him " i ui 

she " her " dU 

we " us « nous 

y° u , " vous 

they or them {mas.) " , eux 

they " them (fern.) « eUes 

N. B. The pronouns it and them, standing for things, when objectives 
to a preposition, will be the subject of a special article. 

Rule. Personal pronouns governed by a preposition are 
expressed as in the above list. 

Remark. This will be an appropriate place to say, that 
after several verbs which require to be followed by the prepo- 
sition a, that preposition does not establish such a relation be- 
tween the noun or pronoun following it, that this noun or pro- 
noun might be considered an objective indirect to the verb. 
This noun or pronoun is therefore objective to the preposition 
a only, and must, when it is a pronoun, be used as directed m 
the above rule, and placed after that preposition. 

The pronoun or adverb y, standing for to it, and to them, or 
here, there, &c, which will be spoken of in this chapter, are 
exceptions to this remark, being used as indirect objectives to 
these verbs. 



Are the personal pronouns always expressed as marked in the First Part of 
this Grammar !— When are they expressed according to the list placed above ? 



224 PR0N0VNS. 



The neuter verbs falling under this remark, are principally 
alter a, to go to ; and all those of motion after which to has the 
sense of towards ; penser a, to think of; and all those express- 
ing thoughts; boire a, to drink to, and recourir d, to have 



recourse to. 

Ex.: I went to him, Fallal a lui. 

Think of me, Pensez a moi. 

EXERCISE. 

The learner must have written and learnt the verb serappeler, to remember, as 
directed, page 128. 

Your brothers wish to have an explanation with me, because you told 
them that I had spoken against them ; but you shall repent of your 
base conduct, because I will speak to him of you. Your sister does not 
always go with ladies, for I remember that I saw a gentleman with her 
yesterday. O God, wilt thou not have mercy upon us, when we sin- 
cerely repent? Remember that I can punish you. Come to me. 
These letters were for me, and that young man opened them. You 
shall not do that work in spite of me. He does not come with him. 
We have repented, and have abandoned our guilty companions: now 
we are happy without them. These ladies were this morning in Broad- 
way, and had their children with them. You remember when they said 
that they could not go out without their husbands: this morning they 
were without them. I will remember your goodness. Was he before 
her, or she before him ? I did not observe them, because they were be- 
hind me. 1 thought of you yesterday ; did you think of me ? We 
can drink to him. 

GENEE.AL RULE RELATING TO THE USE OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS, 

It is a general principle, that the French personal pronouns 
je, til, il, and its, which are always nominatives to verbs, can- 
not b£ used, unless they are followed, or immediately pre- 
ceded, (as in interrogative sentences) by a verb which is in 
the number and person that they require. 

Should the above rule not be strictly observed, there would be no 
agreement between the verb and the pronoun. For instance, if you 
translate you and I will go, by vous et firai, it will be perceived that 
the verb irai is in the singular, while the two pronouns, vows andje, 
form a plural number. If, considering vous and je equivalent to we r 
you say vous et j 1 irons, the singular pronoun je will be followed by a 
verb in the plural, which consequently will not agree with it. The 
following rules will explain all the difficulties. 

Rule 1. Whenever two or more pronouns of the first and 
second person are nominatives to the same verb, or when one 
or several pronouns of the first or second person, accompanied 

"What are the cases in which the pronouns je, tu, il, and Us cannot be used, 
although nominatives to verbs ?— How can a phrase be translated into French, 
when a verb has several nominatives ? 



PRONOUNS. 



225 



by one or more nouns, are nominatives to the same verb ; as, 
you, your brother, and I will go, these pronouns must be 
translated into French as if they were objectives to a preposi- 
tion, and, as they cannot under that form, be considered 
nominatives to the verb, a pronoun, representing all the nomi- 
natives, (either nous or vous) and used in apposition to them y 
must be introduced into the sentence, and become the nomi- 
native to the verb. 

N. B. Nous is used when 1" or we is among the nominatives, and 
vous when there is no pronoun of the first person, but either thou or 
you. 

Remark. It is generally indifferent to begin the sentence 
by nous or vous, or by the real nominatives to the verb. Yet, 
if, on account of the above rules, nous or vous were to appear 
twice in trie phrase, it would be better to commence the sen- 
tence by the pronoun introduced, as the nominative to the 
verb, because that construction would prevent all the pro- 
nouns from coming together. 

Remark 2. Should the English pronouns be followed by 
a relative pronoun, nous or vous would not be required. 

Ex. : You, he, and I shall go, 

Vous , luij et moi, nous irons, or Nous irons, vous, lui, et mou, 

You and his brother will succeed, 

Vmts reussirez, vous et sonfrere, or Vous et sonfrere, vous reu$~ 

sirez. 
You and I who were there, 
Vous tt moi qui y Mions. 

Rule 2. When two or more pronouns of the third person 
are nominatives to the same verb or one or more pronouns 
accompanied by one or more nouns, are nominatives to the 
same verb, these pronouns must be used as if they were ob- 
jectives to a preposition, and the verb must be placed immedi- 
ately after the nominatives, in the third person plural. The 
pronoun which, in the instances mentioned in Rule 1, it is 
necessary to introduce as the nominative to the verb, is un- 
necessary when all the pronouns are of the third person. 

But in some instances elegance or perspicuity requires that 
those pronouns should all be placed after the verb. That con- 
struction, however, is most generally indifferent. In this case, 
of course, the verb cannot be placed first, without a nomina- 
tive, and a pronoun of the third person, used in apposition 
with the other pronouns or nouns, and agreeing with them in 
gender, must be introduced for that purpose. 

What is the peculiarity of the pronouns of the third person ? 



226 PRONOUNS, 

Ex. : He and she will come, 

Lui et elle viendront, or lis viendront, lui et elle. 

His father and I arrived first, 

Son per e et moi nous arrivames les premiers, or, &c. 

Remark. In some phrases, although a verb has several 
nominatives, one of these seems to be the principal object, to 
which the others are but. accessory. Then the verb may agree 
with that nominative alone, which is repeated after the verb, 
and is then followed by the other pronouns or nouns, all ex- 
pressed as if they were objectives to a preposition. 

Ex. : He and his servants were taken, or, He was taken, he and hi» 
servants, 
II f ut pris, lui et ses domestiques. 
N. B. As for the order of the pronouns or nouns, the person spoken 
to is always placed first, and the person who speaks names himself 
last, unless the other pronouns or nouns represent very inferior per* 
.sons, or animals. 

Remark. Should the verb be pronominal, the pronoun 
introduced into the phrase should be accompanied by its cor- 
responding objective pronoun, and in order to avoid the meet- 
ing of so many pronouns, the phrase should commence with, 
the pronominal verb. 

JGx. : Your sister and you remember my name, 

Vous vous rappelez mon nom, vous et votre saw. 

Rule 3. When several personal pronouns, or nouns and 
pronouns, are all direct objectives to the same verb, they must 
take in French the form that they have after prepositions, but 
a pronoun representing them all must be introduced into the 
sentence, and be used as the objective to the verb, in apposition 
to the true objectives which must come immediately after the 
verb. 

The pronouns thus introduced may be nous, vous, and les, 
according to what pronouns are used in the sentence, as was 
explained in regard to nominatives. 

Ex. : He invited you and me, II nous invito, vous et moi. 
I love her and her sister equally, 
Je ks aime elle et sa sceur egalement. 

Remark. Should the objectives be indirect, the phrase 
should be construed as above, but the preposition a must be 
used and repeated before each of the pronouns. 

Ex. : I was speaking to you and to her, 
Je vous parlais a vous et a elle. 



What is the case in which a verb may be used in the singular, although it 
lias several nominatives 1— Which person must be named first, and which last? 
—How are several pronouns placed when they are all objectives to the sain© 
verb ? 



*>RONotms. 227 

Remark. If there be one among the objectives upon which 
the sense of the verb seems to fall particularly, and to which 
the ohers seem to be accessory, that objective may be placed 
alone before the verb, but must be repeated after it, with the 
other pronouns or nouns, all expressed as if they were ob- 
jectives to a preposition. 

Ex. : We will receive him and his friends, 
Nous le recevrons lui et scs amis, 

N. B. The adjective both is not represented in French in these 
phrases. 

EXERCISE. 

The learner must have written and learnt the verb se tromper, negatively, as 
directed page 128. 

You, she, and I will write our letters to-night, and while he and all 
his friends will be hurrying themselves to-morrow, we will take a 
carriage and go to the country. Peter and I made a mistake yester- 
day while counting that money. You and he will accompany me to 
the museum. He and she will pay the debts of their brother. You, 
he, his brother, sister, and I, are all contented. You and I will soon 
learn French. You and he did not make a mistake when you said 
that I had lost twenty-five dollars. Yet I cannot know how you and 
he remembered the money which I had put upon the table. I despise 
him and all his admirers. She and her husband never make mistakes 
in their bills. Let us not make mistakes if we speak to that gentle- 
man and his brother. Please to present my compliments to her and 
her mother, and give them my father's letters. He insulted boih you 
and me by that refusal. If you esteem that man you will excuse him 
and his children. Did she not receive you and her very well. You 
were not mistaken, but her brothers were there, and I thanked both 
her and them. 

N. B. The Rule respecting the place of several pronouns, some being direct 
and others indirect objectives to the same verb, will be found Section III. of 
this Chapter. 

General Rule. The personal pronouns ought to be 
used as objectives to prepositions in all the phrases, an ex- 
ample of which is given below, and in all tho-e, in which a 
pronoun is not immediately followed or preceded by the verb 
; of which it is the nominative or objective. 

Ex. : Moi ! qui suis son fils, I who am his son. 

Eux qui se sont trompes, They who have been mistaken, 

Lui seul me connait, He alone knotos me, 

Moi! lui parler, I! speak to him! 

II est plus sage que toi, He is wiser than thou. 

Can one be placed before, and the others after ?— Explain how.— Can you 
give a few examples of phrases in which the personal pronoun, nominative to 
a verb, is expressed as if it were objective to a preposition 1 —What is the reason 
of that? 



^28 PRONOffNS* 

C'est lui, It is he. 

Glui parle ? Eux, moi, Who speaks ? They, I. 

Ctui a-t-il puni ? moi, Whom has he punished ? Me. 

Je ne connais que lui, J know but him. 

N. B. Je soussigni, fyc. I, the undersigned, &c, is the only exception 
to this rule. 

Remark. The same pronouns are used in apposition to 
the nominative or objective pronouns, when we wish to mark 
a certain distinction between persons, in which case the em- 
phasis is laid, in English, upon the pronouns. These pro- 
nouns are then placed before the verb in French. 

Ex. : He was on horseback and I was on foot, 
II etait a cheval et moi fetais a pied. 
They rewarded her, and they punished him, 
EUe Us la recompenserent, et lui Us le punirent. 

The pronouns of the third person, thus used, may stand for 
the nominative to the verb, which need not be repeated. 

Ex. : She scolded him and they whipped him, 
EUe le gronda et eux le battirent. 

Personal pronouns having the form of objectives to preposi- 
tions are also, in familiar sentences, used by repetition or su- 
perfluity. 

Ex. : II pretend, lui, He does maintain. 

Mettez-Moi cet homme en prison, 
Put that man in prison. 
Oui, je le punirai, lui, Yes, I shall punish him. 

Rule. The pronoun you, placed in apposition to a noun 
that follows it, and used as an apostrophe, is translated into 
French as in the following example. This rule must be ap- 
plied to all other pronouns, used in the same manner. 

Ex. : You fool ! Bete que vous ites ! 

EXERCISE. 

The verb se porter, interrogatively, as directed page 128. 

How do you do, sir, you who take so much care of your health ? 
I ! take care of my health ! you are mistaken, sir. Why do you not 
address your question to your brother ? It is he who is always careful 
of his person. He ! indeed, you do not know him then. He, who is 
your brother, would not lend you two hundred dollars without taking 
your note. Do you think that these gentlemen will be more successful 
than I, because I have not been as prudent as they ? How does your 
mother do ? She is well, but I am not as strong as she is, by half. 

How can you, in a phrase, direct the attention to the nominative pronouns I 



PRONOUNS. 229 

Who knocks at the door ? I. You coward I can you not go to your 
room alone ? He was on the tree, and I was receiving the fruit ; you 
saw but me, and you scolded me, while you praised him for his good 
conduct. That poor man is crazy. Your brothers and sisters tease 
him too much. They accuse him, she takes his part, and he hardly 
knows where he is. 

of the pronouns my self, thy self t &c. 



These pronouns are expressed as follows : 

myself moi-meme ourselves nous-memes 

vous-meme 
vous-memes 
eux-memes 



thyself toi-meme yourself 

himself lui-meme yourselves 

herself elle-raime themselves, m. 

ourself nous-mime themselves,/. elles-memes 

Remark. It has been seen, under the head of reflective 
verbs, that the above pronouns are expressed by me, te, se^ 
<&c, when they are objectives to a reflective verb ; but that 
manner of expressing them extends no further, and myself 
thyself, &c, are expressed as above, in all other instances $ 
as follows. 

Rule. Myself thyself &c, are translated by moi-meme, 
toi-meme, &c, whenever they are used in apposition to a 
noun or a personal pronoun, or when they are objectives to a 
preposition, or placed after but, and, in short, when they are 
not objectives to a reflective verb. 

The same pronouns are sometimes even joined with reflec- 
tive verbs. 

Ex. : I will do it myself, Je le feral moi-meme. 

They have insulted the king himself, 
lis ont insulte le roi lui-meme. 

EXERCISE. 

The verb se perdre interro-negatively, as directed, page 128, 

Since I cannot trust my clerks, I will go to the custom-house myself, 
and will speak to the collector himself. We often bring trouble upon 
ourselves. I love but thee, and wish to see but thyself. They have 
ruined themselves, and they can accuse but themselves of their mis- 
fortunes. I have determined to try that experiment. If I make a 
mistake I will not blame you. Do you not find yourself well to-day ? 
Do that work yourself, you lazy fellow ! Why do you not make 
haste ? 
-- ■ ■ . — — , *" 

When are the pronouns myself, thyself, &c, expressed [by moi-m&me, toi~meme t 
<fcc. ? 

20 



230 PRONOUNS. 

OF THE FRENCH PRONOUN 071. 

This pronoun, which is one of the most important in the 
French language, is called indefinite, and would have been 
placed amongst the indefinite pronouns, if it had not been 
thought best to explain its analogy with the other personal 
pronouns. It is called indefinite, as it designates persons in 
a vague and indeterminate manner. 

In English, several modes of expression, particularly the 
passive way, are used, when the person or persons perform- 
ing the action is or are unknown or indeterminate. The 
French use the pronoun on in the same instances, as will be 
illustrated by examples. 

Rule. On is always the nominative of the verb, which 
agrees with it in the third person, and is always singular 
although it often conveys the 7 idea of a multitude. In some 
instances, however, on is followed by an adjective or noun 
in the plural, which takes place when the noun or adjective 
conveys an idea of reciprocity or plurality. Its gender is the 
masculine, but there are, however, situations in which it is 
evidently feminine. This is when the sense of the sentence 
indicates that this pronoun can refer but to women ; then, if 
any adjective is connected with it, that adjective should be put 
in the feminine. 

Rule. On must be repeated before all the verbs, and refer 
to one and the same subject. It cannot in any case be repre- 
sented by il, elle, or any other pronoun. 

Ex.: On est heureux quand on est sage, 
One is happy iphen he is wise. 
On blame toujours les defauts des autrcs, 
People always blame others 1 failings. 
On travaille nuit et jour a la tour, 
They work night and day at the tower. 
On aime le pere et on craint le fils, 
The father is beloved, and the son is feared. 
On dit que nous avons perdu la bataille, 
Itw said that we have lost the battle. 
On n'est pas toujours bons amis, 
Men are not always good friends. 
On n'est pas toujours jeune et jolie, 
One is not always young and pretty. 

Remark 1. Since on must refer to one and the same sub- 
ject; the following phrase, it is said that a bank will be 

What is the use of the pronoun on ?— What is its gender ?— Its number T — Is it 
veer feminine 1— When ?— Can it be represented by any of the other pronouns ?— 
an on be used for two different objects in the same phrase ? 



PRONOUNS. 231 

established, cannot be translated by, on dit quVon etablira 
une banque. The second verb must remain in the passive 
voice ; on dit quhcne banque sera etablie. 

Remark 2. As this pronoun begins with a vowel, a eupho- 
nical t is prefixed to it in interrogative verbs, as is done 
for the sake of avoiding the hiatus, in the case of the other 
pronouns of the third person. Ex. : a-t-on termini, have they 
terminated. 

In any other part of the sentence when on is preceded by 
a word ending in a vowel which cannot be elided, it is gene- 
rally spelt thus : Von, for the sake of euphony. Ex. : Si Von 
parte de moi, if they speak of me. Yet the hiatus is prefera- 
ble to a repetition of the I. When, therefore, that letter is found 
in the syllable which follows on, it is better not to use the 
euphonical I. 

Ex. : II alia oil on lui dit que petals, 

He went where lie was told that I was. 

Remark 3. On, being a corruption of homme, the I is 
nothing but a definite article, but it may be called a euphonical 
letter, because of the actual use of the word on. 

Remark 4. On account of its etymology this pronoun is 
used only for what can be done by men ; and as its significa- 
tion is vague, it ought not to be used if the English pronoun 
represents persons that are determined by the sentence. 

Remark 5. On cannot be followed by a relative pronoun. 
When the English pronoun one is followed by who, &c, it 
must be translated by quelquhm, or celui, as will be explained 
with the indefinite and demonstrative pronouns. 

Remark 6. It is very common in French to give to the 
pronoun vous a sense of generality, which allows it to be used 
instead of on. This takes place in phrases expressing doubt, 
exactly as if you meant you or any other. 

This construction would therefore be very improper if the 
action attributed to the pronoun vous should be blameable or 
criminal. 

Ex. : If a person works without being paid, 
Si vous travaillez sans etre pave. 
But not, Si vous volez, on vous pendra, 
If a man steal he will be hung. 
Say, Si Von vole on est pendu. 

How is on used after a verb ending in a vowel ? — How is it used after any 
other word ending in a vowel ? — In what instance ought not the V to be used . 
What are the instances in which on cannot be used?— What is the pronoun 
that has also a general sense?— What are the instances in which it would 
be wrong to use it ?— Is there not another way of expressing the phrases wrtn- 
dut determining the agent of the actions ? 



232 PRONOUNS* 

EXERCISE. 

The learner must make himself familiar with pronominal verbs. 

One is soon at the bottom of the precipice, if he puts his foot on iho 
edge. People think that happiness is the consequence of riches, but 
they mistake. When one is rich he is not always happy. What 
will people say of our family, if you disgrace yourself so ? Tyrants 
are flattered, but they are not loved. The power of steam was not 
known before Fulton. Will not the prisoners be brought before us ? 
It is reported that the disease has spread throughout the country. 
Was it said how many persons died ? Yes ; they said twelve per- 
sons a day at Paterson. Read the sign of that tavern, " Milk and 
beer sold here :" and the inscription of that burying-ground, " Here 
men are equal." I think that one cannot gamble and be honest. Why 
did you not go to Broadway, where he is seen twenty times a-day, if 
you wish to speak to him ? If I am cheated again this time, I will 
blame my fate. They have built a beautiful house in our neigh- 
bourhood. It is said that they are going to sell all that property at 
auction. One is always happy with a good husband. Do they 
speak much at the Exchange of that merchant's failure ? Has that 
poor man been assisted in time ? Yes ; he has been carried to the 
hospital. 

N. B. Phrases in which the agent of the action is unknown, or is not 
mentioned, are not always in French construed by the aid of the^pro* 
noun on. The learner must be aware of this if he has read attentively* 
the explanations on the passive reflective and the impersonal reflective 
verbs. But as this subject is very closely connected with what follows, 
It is better to read first the following explanations, after which proper 
directions will be given. 

OF THE PRONOUN Se AND SOU 

This pronoun is called reflective, as it marks the relation of 
a person to himself. 

Se or s\ is used with reflective verbs, and answers for him- 
self, herself itself and themselves : with reciprocal verbs, and 
answers for one another, each other ; and with the essential 
pronominal verbs with which it is superfluous. 

It has an intimate relation to the pronoun on, of which it 
may be considered as the objective, and after which it has al- 
ways the sense of one^s-self since on is invariably singular. 

Ex. : One finds himself (one's self) exposed to danger, 
On se trouve expose au danger. 

Se answers both as a direct or indirect objective and follows* 
respecting its place, the same rules that govern the personal 
pronouns. Se is repeated with every verb in a sentence ; except 
in compound tenses when the auxiliary is omitted before seve- 
ral successive participles. 

What is the peculiarity of se and soi ?,— How are these pronouns. called ?— Whe& 
1$ #eu8*d? 



PRONOUNS. 233 

Sbi) which always signifies one's-self or itself, but which 
stands also for themselves, is only employed after prepositions, 
or after que, but ; and on the same occasions as the pronouns, 
page 223. 

Soi, may be used instead of lui and elle, in order to avoid 
equivocation ; but lui-meme or elle-meme, answer better than. 
soi, when himself or herself is used in the English phrase. 

Ex.: He speaks but of himself. 

II ne park que de soi, and better il ne parle que de lui-mSme. 

L'avare qui a un fils prodigue n'amasse ni pour soi, ni pour 

lui. 
The miser who has a prodigal son, hoards up neither for* the latter 

nor for himself. 

Soi is often followed by the word meme, as, soi-meme, one's- 
self, and then can be used without being preceded by a preposi- 
tion ; as, un ami est un autre soi-meme, a friend is a second 
self. 

Remark. Se and soi are the only pronouns that can be used 
as objectives in relation to on, and to all indefinite pronouns, 
as will be hereafter explained. 

N. B. The learner will have to lock at the explanations, p^ge 124, 
on the passive reflective verbs, and at those at page 130, on the imper- 
sonal reflective verbs, before writing the following exercise, which is to 
be written on these difliculties. 

N. B. Remember that one^s is expressed by son, sa, ses, the only pos- 
sessive adjective which can be used in relation to on, or any indefinite 
person. 

EXERCISE. 

When one speaks against his neighbour, he speaks against himself.. 
Gold is found in different parts of the world. The sugar cane is culti- 
! vated with success in the island of Martinique. \ People always act first. 
for themselves in this world. When one sees himself the &iipe of a 
quack, he dares not mention it. Those pills are taken before breakfast. 
A report was spread in the city that the army had met the enemy, and 
bad gained a great advantage. More crimes are committed in that 
country than here. Great events are preparing in Europe. When one. 
thinks that he loves a woman, he often loves but himself. He has co- 
vered himself with shame, and has drawn upon himself the hatred of 
the nation. When one is often alone, he becomes queer in his maimers. 
He premised that he would speak for her, and spoke for himself. It is 
cruel to lose one's children by one's own fault. 

OF THE PRONOUNS en AND y. 

If no example on the pronoun it, when indirect objective has: 
been given, it is because that pronoun, when preceded in Eng- 

When is soi used 1 — Has se or soi any relation to on or any of the indefinite pro- 
I nouns?— Does not soi sometimes stand for him or her ]— When ]— Wliat do |tb& 
i pronouns en and y stand for ? 

20* 



234 PRONOUtfS* 

lish by the prepositions of and to, is represented in French by 
the two words en and y. 

En signifies, of it, from it, with it, about it, at it, after verbs 
of surprise, derision, endanger, and, of them, from them, <$-c. 
and is applied to things and animals. 

Y means to it, at it, to them, at them,, but it is not applied 
to animals, for which lui or leur are used. 

Rule 1. These pronouns are placed in the same manner as 
the personal pronouns. The elision of the personal pronouns, 
and of the negative ne, takes place before en and y. 

Ex. : Pen parle. I speak of it. 

Ajoutez-Y du sucre, Add sugar to it. 

N. B. Although, according to the definition given in this Grammar, 
page 86, of the indirect objectives to the verb, the pronoun en could not 
be called indirect objective, yet it has a right to that name, just as well 
as y, since the only reason for allowing an indirect objective in French, 
is the necessity of having a name to distinguish those pronouns which 
stand both for a pronoun and a preposition. This is the only exception 
of this kind. 

Rule 2. Should the verb which precedes the pronouns en 
and y, in the second person singular of the imperative mood 5 
end in e mute, this e would suffer no elision ; and, in order to 
prevent the meeting of the two vowels, an 5 should be added 
to the verb. 

Ex. : Parles-en a ton pere, Speak of it to thy father. 

Cette raison est bonne, cedes-y, That reason is good, yield to U* 

N. B. The use of en and y is very extensive, and will be explained in its place. 

EXERCISE. 

The verb s'en aller, to go. away, as explained, page 128. 

We went away before the end of the service ; for it was veiy tire* 
some, and we thought that we never should see the end of it. Give me 
that penknife ; I will mend my pen with it. Gentlemen, I will read to 
you the fourth /chapter of Matthew, and I will add to it my own reflec- 
tions. Let us go away : that music is horrible ; I am tired of it. These 
horses are overheated ; do not give them water now. Happiness was 
not destined for men : they aspire to it, but they often sacrifice their 
Actual comfort to the hope of reaching it, and they die without obtain- 
ing the possession of it. They have not gone away ; I am sure of it. 
I hit the tree ; I aimed at it. That sum of money is not the whole of 



What are en and y called?— How are they used?— Can en be applied to ani- 
mals ?— Can y be applied to animals ?— What is to be observed when the second 
person singular of the imperative of a verb ends in e mute before en and y ?~— 
Have hot these pronouns a more extensive use? 



> PRONOUNS. 236 

your debt. Add ten dollars to it. I am going, since you have no ob- 
jection to it. This problem is not difficult : find (thou) the solution of 
it. Think (thou) of it; give (thou) thy attention to it; and tell us the 
result of it. 



SECTION III. 

OF THE PLACE OF TWO PRONOUNS, ONE BEING OBJECTIVE 
DIRECT, AND THE OTHER INDIRECT. 

Nothing has yet been said concerning the arrangement of two pro- 
nouns, one of which is direct objective, and the other indirect objective 
to the same verb. This subject, for the understanding of which it was 
necessary to possess the knowledge of various difficulties, will now b« 
explained. 

The learner must be sure that he remembers the rules, page 88, re- 
specting the place of the personal pronouns, when objectives to verbs, 
before he passes to the following rules. 

Remark. When one of two pronouns, objectives to the 
same verb, is an objective direct, and the other, an indirect ob- 
jective, it is very important to know to which person the direct 
objective belongs. 

Rule 1. When the direct objective is a pronoun of the 
first or second person, this pronoun must be placed, and used 
with the verb, whatever be its tense and person, as- if there 
were no indirect objective. The preposition to, and its ob- 
jective, instead of being represented, as usual, by the indirect 
objective pronouns, me, te, lui, §c, are used separately, and 
the pronoun assumes after a the form of pronouns after pre- 
positions. — See the list, page 223. Both the preposition a and 
the pronoun are placed after the verb, and as near as possible* 

Ex. : He compares me to you, II me compare a vous. 

Have I recommended you to her ? Vous ai-je recommande a elle ? 
Introduce me to them, Presentez-moi a tux. 

Remark 1. The reflective pronoun se, when objective di- 
rect, requires the indirect objective to be used in the same man- 
ner as though the direct objective were a pronoun of the flrst 
or second person. 

Se is considered objective direct with essential pronominal 
verbs. 



What is the most important thing to observe when two pronouns, one being 
direct, and the other indirect objective, come with the same verb ?— How dp 
you place them when the direct objective belongs to the first or second person? 
**-What is to be observed respecting the pronoun se when direct objectively 



236 PRONOUNS. 

Ex. : He gave himself tip to her, II se soumit a elle. 

N. B. The above rule is applicable to pronominal verbs, respecting 
which a remark will be made, after the exercise which is placed after 
"Rule 2. 

Rule 2. When the direct objective is a pronoun of the third 
person, (except however se,) both the direct and indirect ob- 
jectives are used in connection with the verb; that is to say, 
they are both placed before it, except, as usual, when the verb 
is in the imperative affirmative; and they do not therefore take 
the form of pronouns after prepositions. 

As for the relative places of the pronouns, two rules are fol- 
lowed, viz. 

1. When both pronouns come before the verb, those of the 
first or second person are placed before those of the third ; and 
if both pronouns belong to the third person, the direct objec- 
tive is placed before the indirect. 

Ex. : He sent him to you, II vous V envoy a. 

I lent it to him, Je le lui pretax. 

They have not shown it to me, lis ne me Vont pas montre. 

2. When the two pronouns come after an imperative, those 
of the third person are placed first, undoubtedly for sound's 
sake, and both pronouns are joined to the imperative by- 
hyphens. When they both belong to the third person, the di- 
rect objective precedes the indirect. 

Ex. : Give it to me, Donnez-le-moi. 

Send him to us, Envoyez-le-nous. 

N. B. There are many examples in good authors ofnoas-le, la, les, or 
vous-le,la, les, after imperatives, although this order does not seem to be 
as proper. 

N. B. In order to prevent crowding the mind of the learner, an exercise will 
be written upon the two above rules. A special exercise will be given on some 
remarks, which will be placed after this. 

EXERCISE. 

; The verb 's'en alter, interrogatively, negatively, &c. 

When General P. introduced me to you, you thought that I was a 
captain. I trust myself to you. She described me so well to him, that 
he found me in the crowd. He did not go away when I showed him 
to you ; but as I was going to bring you to him, he left the room. He 
will recommend us to him. When I showed myself to him, he did not 
know me. I will introduce you to her, and she will admit your visits. 

How are the pronouns placed when the direct objective is a pronoun of the 
third person 7— In what relative order are the two pronouns used, when they 
come before the verb 7— How when they come after 7— Is that rule invariable t^ 



PRONOUNS, 23T 

Let us not go away now ; for if your aunt is here, your father will ■ 
send us to her, with his compliments. Dear N., fate gives thee to me. 
I constantly think of you and them. Powerful queen ! an oath binds-, 
us to you. The general came, and the officers surrendered to him, 
He applied to me, but I could not lend him any money. Why does 
she trust him? Why do you go now? I have my new atlas; I will 
show it to you. Has she gone ? No, sir. Shall I send her to you 1 
Yes ; send her to me. Shall I introduce her to you ? Yes? introduce 
me to her. If you have her letter, give it to her. Do they not under- 
stand this difficulty ? Explain it to them. Lend me your horse and 
wagon. I will lend you the wagon ; but as for the horse, I will not 
lend him to you. Why do they not go away, when we say that we do 
not want them here? You have our passports ; give them to us. Do 
you know these engravings? Shall I show them to you ? No, sir, do 
not show them to me now ; but, since that gentleman wishes to see 
them, send them to him ; and do not sell them to him, if he will not 
give a good price for the set. What bad boys ! Have they not gone 
yet ? Take this dollar and give it to them. I want your horses: sell 
them to me. Since you have read those books, return them to us : we 
lent them to you for two or three days, and you kept them three weeks* 
If you have not read them entirely, I will send them back to you to> 
morrow. That ring is for my sister. Give it to her. 

F Remark 1. It was said, page 236, that the preceding Rule I, was 
applicable to pronominal verbs ; but some of these verbs, from theif' 
nature, cannot be* governed by it. The verbs alluded to are the indi- 
rect reflective and indirect reciprocal verbs.- — (See pages 124 and 125.) — * 
An example will make this understood. 

\i Let us try to translate into French the phrase, I remember you, by tn@: 
verb se rappeler, to recall to one's self. I remember, is, Je me rapptlel and. 
you, being direct objective, will, if placed before the verb, exclude the 
indirect objective me, according to Rule 1. This latter pronoun must 
be considered the objective of the preposition to, (in French, a,) and 
must be expressed by moi; but if, conformably to this rule, we say >: 
Je vous rappele a moi, the verb will be no longer the reflective verb, se 
rappeler, and the meaning will be altered in this and in all similar cases* 
The phrase must therefore be translated in another manner. Here, for 
instance, the verb se souvenir de, which signifies also to remember,, 
should be used instead of se rappeler, and I remember you, should be 
translated by Je me souviens de vous. 

The same verbs can however be preceded by a pronoun of 
the third person, according to Rule 2, since that pronoun is a 
direct objective. Then it will be proper to say, Je me le rap- 
pile, I remember him. In the third person, se is placed before 
the other pronoun ; as, // se rest attire, he has drawn it to 
himself. 

Remark 2. En and y are in all instances placed after the 
other personal pronouns. 

Tell what is said concerning indirect reflective and indirect reciprocal verba ?— » 
jSJow are the pronouns en and y placed when coming with other pronouns 1 



238 



PRONOUNS. 



Ex. : I will speak to you of it, Je vons en parietal. 



But, for sound's sake, y is placed before moi and toi ; a% 
Invitez-y-moi, invite me to it. This construction must how- 
ever be avoided. 

When moi and toi are followed by en, the former pronouns 
are elided, as follows : on'' en, fen ; as, Donnez-mSen une par- 
fie, give me a part of it. 

Remark 3. There is one instance in which Rule 2, may 
not be followed. This occurs when the indirect objective must 
be presented in such manner as to strike the mind of the per- 
son spoken to. This indirect objective is then placed as indi- 
cated by Rule 1. Thus if by these words, give it to her, I 
mean, to her in particular, and not to another, I will translate 
the phrase by donnez-le a elle. 

Remark 4. If several objectives direct and indirect should 
come in succession, they should be expressed according to the 
rule, page 228, viz: placed after the verb under the form of pro- 
nouns objectives to prepositions, but represented by a pronoun 
used as the objective to the verb. 

Ex. : I will send you and her to them, 
Je vous enverrai a ey%. vous et elle. 



; 



EXERCISE. 
I The learner must have written a passive verb, as directed page 122. 

"We have been cheated once and we remember it very well ; we will 
not be caught again. I left my books here and you have appropriated 
them to yourself. Give me that peach: I only wish to bite a small 
piece of it. The examination will take place next week, but I will pre- 
pare you for it, if you are not already prepared. Do you like that 
wine? Very well; I will give you another glass of it. I like the 
taste of it, but I will not trust it, for I perhaps would repent of it. 
These gentlemen are not accustomed to it. Well : then I will accustom 
them to it. You^ have beautiful shells in that closet ; give me one of 
them. Are these pens mended ? May I take that rose? No, indeed ; 
I will not give it to you, it would soon be faded ; but I will keep it for 
your mother. The president asked for the picture ; but instead of send-, 
mg it to him, they sent it tome. The king prefers you and me to 
them. 

SECTION IV. 

OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS IN THEIR VARIOUS USES. 

General Rule. Although the personal pronouns il, elle* 
Us, elles, and le, la, les, answer for it, they, and them, used for 

Can moi and toi be used'before en andy ' — What are the instances in which 
the indirect objective pronoun is placed after the verb, although the direct ob~ 
jective be a pronoun of the third person ?— How is the phrase construed when*, 
c^yeraj direct or indirect objectives come with one indirect or direct? 



PRONOUNS. 230 

things, yet the genius of the French language does not admit 
the use of lui, elle, eux, elles, referring to things either after 
prepositions, or in any of the instances, in which the pronouns 
of the list, page <:23, are used. 

The construction of many phrases allows the use of the pronoun en 
or y, or of some adverb corresponding to the preposition, in order to 
express both the preposition and pronoun. 

What makes the use of en and y very extensive, in these phrases, is 
that en, besides meaning 1 of it and of them, with it, from it, about it, fyc 9 
stands also for some or any, when pronouns, and for hence, thence. Y 
signifi es there or here, in it ; besides to it, at it, by it, fyc. 

Ex. : I like those comedies ,• I have extracted several passage® 
from them, 
J^aime ces comedies ; f en ai extrait plusieurs passages. 
Ex. : The table was there : I knocked against it, 
La table it ait id; fy frappai. 
The adverbs, which may be used instead of a preposition and pro* 
nouns, are •* 



apres 


after which stands for 


after it or them. 


dessus 


above " 


on it, on them. 


dessous 


under " 


under it, under them. 


devant 


before " 


before it, before them. 


derriere 


behind " 


behindit, behind them. 


dedans 


within " 


in or intoit, or them. 


dehors 


without " 


out of it, out of them. 



Their most general use is when they are opposed to some other ad- 
verb or preposition. 

Ex. : I put my book on the table, and found it under it, 
Je mis mon livre sur la table etje le trouvai dessous. 
But there are some phrases in which it is impossible to use en, y, or 
any of the above adverbs ; the best way, in that case, is to give a differ- 
ent turn to the sentence, and to express the pronoun and preposition in 
some other manner. 

Es. : Do not come without it, 

•Afie venez pas sans Vapporter. 
In a dignified style, however, lui, elle, eux, elles, may be used, parti- ■ 
l cularly for objects personified, and after the prepositions avec, apres, 
par and pour ; but strangers should avoid these constructions, unless 
the English phrase they want to translate has one of the. masculine or 
feminine pronouns, instead of the neuter pronoun if, and if no better 
* rase can be found. 

Ex. : I like truth to such an extent that I would sacrifice every thing 
to her. 
J'aime la verite au point queje sacrifierais tout pour elle. 

What is to be observed concerning the pronouns it and them referring to things, 
after prepositions ?—- What do en and y signify besides of it, to it, &c.?— What 
are the adverbs that can be used instead of the pronouns it and them preceded 
by prepositions ?— How are these phrases in which such a substitution is im- 
possible, to be expressed? 



phi- 



240 PRONOUNS, 

EXERCISE. 

i *fhe learner must have studied the impersonal verbs. 

Open the drawer, my book is in it. When I saw that it snowed I 
opened my umbrella, and he placed himself under it. Yes, we were 
Very much fatigued, and, as we perceived a cottage, we went to hV 
They offered us a lodging for the night ; but our beds were very hard, 
and we could not sleep upon them. They acted like the man who 
shut the stable door when the horses were already gone. I cannot 
sell that linen at thirty cents a yard ; I would lose by it. That table 
is broken ; do not lean upon it. I left my pocket-book in my room, 
because you put a book before it last night : but as soon as I perceived 
my forgetfulness I came back, because I do not like to be without it. 
Faith cannot be forced, but a Christian who possesses it would sacri- 
fice his life for it. It freezes ; let us go to the fire, we will warm our- 
selves by it. 

ON THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS USED INSTEAD OF THE 
POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES. 

Rule 1. When a possessive adjective qualifies a noun, 
which signifies some part of the body of the person spoken 
to, or spoken of, that person must be represented by a per- 
sonal pronoun used as the objective indirect to the verb, and 
the possessive adjective is expressed by an article. (See the^ 
remarks below.) 

N. B. The verb to beg (a person's) pardon, is translated into Freneh 
in the same manner. 

Ex. : My head aches, La tete me fait mal. 

I will break his head, Je lui casserai la tete. 

I beg your pardon, Je vous demande excuse. 

Rule 2. Should this noun refer to the nominative of the 
sentence, the verb should be made indirect reflective. 

Ex. : I washed my face, II me lavai le visage. 

Rule 3. After passive verbs, the nominatives of which are 
persons, the article is sufficient, and the preposition in is ex- 
pressed like to. 

Ex. : I was wounded in my shoulder, Jefus blesse a Vepaule. 

Remark 1. According to the genius of the French lan- 
guage, the actions performed towards several persons, or 
rather, towards some parts of their bodies, are considered as 

Explain when and how personal pronouns may be substituted for possessive 
adjectives 1— Is it the same with passive verbs 1— What article do you use be- 
fore the noun which represents a part of the body of which each manposaesaes 
but one, when several persons are mentioned ? 



"PRONOUNS. 241 

performed towards different individuals, in succession ; which 
leads to the following rule : 

Rule. The nouns expressing parts or attributes of physical 
man, remain singular in the French, if each man possesses 
but one of the things mentioned. 

Ex. : Three hundred men lost their lives. 
Trois cents homines perdirent la vie. 
The savages cut off their noses and ears. 
Les sauvages lew couperent le nez et les oreilles. 

Remark 2. Rules 1 and 2 are not without exceptions: 
their application is, on the contrary, most generally limited to 
things performed by the hands, or to what occasions injury or 
pain, or attends diseases or accidents ; in all other instances, 
the phrase is translated as in English. 

Ex. : Push your feet, Poussez vos pieds. 

I will show you my teeth, Je vous montreraimes dents. 
■ Their eyes are red, Lews yeux sont rouges. 

There are even many cases of the possessive adjective being 
represented simply by an article, which occurs when we speak 
of a motion that is natural to the limb which performs it, and 
particularly when there can be no equivocation. But should 
the noun be qualified the possessive adjective must be used. 

Ex. : I opened my mouth, J'owvris la bouche. 

Shut your eyes, Fermez les yeux. 

Give me your beautiful hand, Donnez-mci voire belle main. 

EXERCISE. 

It will be proper now to take the irregular verbs according to the order of the 
conjugations. The learner will, therefore, learn and write, if it be thought ne- 
cessary, the first six verbs of the list, page 135, all of which have the same 
irregularity, and can be written in one verb .by changing the root at each 
tense. 

That boy pulls my .hair. My uncle has sprained his ancle, and the 
doctor will cut his foot off. I broke my arm. Wash your face. They 
tied his arms and covered his eyes. Please to rub my hand, I have a 
cramp in it. You always cut your chin when you shave yourself. I 
feel a pain in my foot now ; I have surely sprained it. That mis- 
chievous man was holding my hands, and his brother was daubing 
my face. Stop your ears. Do you not hear that dreadful noise? 
Open your eyes, and you will see the wonders of nature. When I 
sleep too much, I feel heavy during the day. She went to the dentist 
yesterday, and he pulled out her tooth. She says, that, as she was 
going out, she trod on a piece of orange skin ; she fell down and hurt 
her foot. When a man does not speak the truth, he lies ; but I would 
bite my tongue ten times, before telling him : you lie, sir. He will 

What are the instances in which the article is sufficient without the personal 
.pronoun 1 

21 



242 PRONOUNS. 

not punish you this time, if you beg his pardon. They said that they 
would break our heads, but when they came to us, we pulled their 
ears, and they did not dare answer us. Do not put your feet on the 
fender. Shut your eyes, and. open your mouth ; now bite. Oh ! you 
wicked fellow, I have bitten my lower lip. He cast down his eyes 
when he saw that I was setting out without speaking to him :. he felt 
quite uneasy. Has he gone out ? Yes, sir, and I told him, that if 
he would not be here before night, you would box his ears. The 
king was struck in his side, and he lost all his blood before the 
arrival of the doctor. When I think of it, the tears come into my 
eyes. 

OF THE ENGLISH PRONOUN it. 

When this pronoun, it, does not represent a noun, and is the 
nominative to the verb to be, it is expressed by ce, or c\ if it is 
used_in the sense of that, or in order to represent a part of the 
sentence ; but it is expressed by il, if it cannot be supplied by 
that, as for instance when it belongs to an impersonal verb. 
Both of these pronouns are masculine. 

Ex. : Cest excellent, It is excellent. 

II pleuvra demain, It will rain to-morrow. 

C'est avec plaisir que je vous offre mes services. 
It is with pleasure that I offer my services to you. 

N. B. The learner must remember what was said page 215, con- 
cerning the regimen of adjectives ; which, being compared with the 
above paragraph, will give as a rule, that it, when nominative, is 
expressed by ce, when the following adjective qualifies it, in which 
case, if that adjective has a regimen, that regimen is connected with 
the adjective by the proposition a ; while it is expressed by il when 
used impersonally, or when the adjective which follows qualifies an 
infinitive with which it is joined, by the preposition de. 

It is likewise necessary to review the rules which treat of the in- 
stances in which ce or c' stands for the personal pronouns, page 192. 

E.EMARK 1. When it is the nominative to an impersonal verb, 
it is invariably expressed in French by il, but when it is followed 
by an adjective which qualifies an infinitive following it, it may be 
expressed by ce, although the adjective is, nevertheless, joined to the 
infinitive by the preposition de. This remark is placed here merely 
as a memorandum, for the phrase construed with il, is a great deal 
better. Thus we may say, c'est inutile d'y alter, instead of, il est inutile 
d'y alter, it is useless to go there. 

Remark 2. It is sometimes translated by il instead of ce, al- 
though its place may be supplied by that, but that mode is only al- 
lowed in poetry or dignified style, and in prose, only in the following 
phrase: — 

EsUil possible ! Is it possible ! 



When is it expressed by ce?— When by c' ?— When by il?— Can it be ever ex- 
pressed by ce instead of iZ;~When ?— When can il be used instead of ce ? ■ 



PRONOUNS. 243 

Remark 3. It is expressed by ce, when it refers to time, as it can 
always be supplied by that ; as, 

It ivas in June, C'etait en Juin. 

It is expressed by le when it is objective to a verb and stands 
for a preceding sentence or verb. 

Ex. : Sortez ; votre sante le demande, 
Go out ; your health requires it, 
Ne faites pas cela ; je le defends, 
Do not do that ; I forbid it. 

Observe that it is expressed in French as above, only when 
it comes after the verb for which it stands, for it is not ex- 
pressed at all, if the English it precedes that verb. 

Ex. : I thought it necessary to inform you of that accident. 
J'ai cru necessaire de vous informer de cet accident, 

N. B. The learner may look at the page 129, where it is spoken 
of impersonal verbs. 

N. B. It is likewise expressed by cela, as will be explained with the 
demonstrative adjectives. 

EXERCISE. 

The verbs Numbers 7, 8, and 9, of the list, page 135. 

Has he been rich? Yes, it is certain. I did think that it was 
true. Is it possible ? No, it is not possible. It hails very hard, and 
it is not possible to go out. It is difficult to understand the reason of 
that conduct. It is not difficult to guess. He opens his door and win- 
dows as soon as he is in the room, and it is not astonishing to see him 
sick. I suffer the importunities of a man for a long time, but when I 
3ee that it is impossible to put an end to them, I lose my patience. 
I offer you my credit here, and it is not small. You take away the 
lamp, without observing that we are in the room ; it is very polite 
indeed ! If it is your politeness, I think that it is Hot very great. 
He has not accepted the money which I have offered to him ; is it not 
singular ? It is not extraordinary to see persons who have suffered 
hunger and cold, become extravagant when they have money. It is an 
abominable action. It was a very cunning trick. It was not possible 
to discover the snare concealed by his polite manners. It was very 
easy to perceive it, as it was prudent to suspect the man. 

OP THE FRENCH PRONOUN, U. 

This pronoun represents, in French, the English adverb so, 
when so comes after an active transitive verb, and can be 
supplied by that. 

Ex. : Je le crois, / believe so. 

How is it expressed in the objective case ?— Are there instances in which {/, 
in the objective case, is not expressed in French ?— What are they t— When is 
60 translated into French by le ? 



244 PRONOUNS. 

Observe that so has in many phrases the sense of thus, and 
is then translated into French by ainsi, comme ga, or cela, 
like that, de cette maniere, in that manner, &c. 

Ex. : Why do you eat so ? Ponrquoi mangez-vous ainsi ? 

He walks so. II marche comme ca. 

Le stands also for it, when objective, as explained above. 

N. B. The difference between le and cela, both standing for so, will 
be explained with the demonstrative pronoun. 

The phrases in which so is initial will be mentioned amongst the rela- 
tive pronouns. 

So after so much will be found in the chapter of adverbs. 

Remark. In French, as it may have been observed, the 
objective of an active verb cannot be understood. Thus, the 
verb to be cannot signify a manner of being, if this manner is 
not expressed after the verb by an adjective, or a substantive 
used adjectively. But as the repetition of these words would 
seem inelegant, le is used before the verb to supply their place> 
whatever be their gender or number, as this pronoun has then 
the sense of the adverb so, which is sometimes employed in 
English, in similar circumstances. 

Ex. : Est-il madade ? oui, il Pest, (il est malade.) 

Is he sick ? yes, he is, (he is so, he is sick.) 

Observe, that it is not always an adjective which is thus un- 
derstood after the verb to be, but often a substantive, or an ad- 
jective used substantively. 

In this case, the pronoun required in French should agree in, 
gender and number with the person which it represents. 
Ex. : Sera-t-elle Votre heritiere ? Oui, elle a.a sera. 

Will she be your heiress ? Yes, she will. 

Etes-vous les accuses ? Oui, nous les sommes. 

JLrb you the prisoners ? Yes, vje are. 

N.B. In these phrases, the pronouns are used in the objective, and 
placed with the verb etre, as with an active verb. 

Remark. It will be easy to distinguish the phrases, in which the 
pronoun accompanying to be, stands for a person, from those in which 
it represents an adjective, by trying to add the words the person after 
the verb to be. So, if I ask, Are you the empress ? the answer will be, 
Yes, I am ; that it to say, / am the person, I am the empress. 

There is another way of distinguishing between these two sorts of 
sentences. When the word that the pronoun represents is determined 
by an article, or by any of the adjectives that determine substantives, 
it is a noun, and the pronoun that represents it must agree with it in 

When by ainsi, comme cat — When is le used with the verb to be, although no 
represented in English?— Is le always used before to be, whatever words it may 
represent ?— When must that pronoun agree ? — And with what ?— How can it 
be determined whether the^pronoun placed before etre stands for a noun or an 
adjective ? 



PRONOUNS- 245 

gender and number; but if the word that the pronoun represents is 
not determined by any word, it is an adjective, or a word used as such, 
and the pronoun must be invariably le. 

If the learner has well understood this distinction, he will 
find an example of it in the two following phrases : 

Madame, etes-vous mariee? Oui, je le suis, 

Madam, are you married? Yes, I am (so.) 

Madame, etes-vous la mariee? Oui, je la suis, 

Madam, are you the bride ? Yes, lam {the person.) 

Rule. The same pronoun le is used after the verbs je dois f 
I ought to, jepetcv, I cm,jef veuv, I "wish, and the different 
tenses and persons of these verbs, as well as with the verb etre, 
to be, in order to represent what falls under the government 
of these verbs. 

Ex. : Je le dois, I ought (to do so.) 

Je le pouvaiSj I could (do so.) 

II le veut, He wishes (to do so.) 

EXERCISE. 

The derivatives of the first three verbs of the list, page 135. 

That man is happy. I do not think so. When a man is rich, is he 
not happy ? He is not always so. That young man was extremely 
negligent : he lived so ; he died so. I will spend two hours with yoiu 
Yes, do so. He fell asleep while talking to me. He is not asleep^ 
Yes, he is. He is crazy. Would you not say so, if you had seen his 
conduct ? Yes, he is, since you say so. But do you not know that he 
set out again yesterday morning for Boston, after promising that he 
would never return thither / You once found me amiable. Why am 
I not so at present? Ladies, are you relatives? Yes, we are. Are 
you, miss, the person who is sick ? Yes, I am. Gentlemen, are you 
the authors of these pamphlets? Yes, we are. They say that she 
will be the queen of England. But she will not. We defend the inte- 
rest of our parents when- we can do it without being guilty of injustice,, 
She is very capricious: she was gay yesterday, and she is not so to- 
day. Perhaps she will be sorrowful to-morrow. 

OF THE DIFFERENT USES OF THE PRONOUNS en, AND t/. 

Although these pronouns are intended to stand for things, 
yet they may be sometimes used to represent persons. En, 
then answers for of him, of her, of them, and y for to him, ta 
her, and to them. 

It is important to observe, that it is not in all instances that 
these pronouns can be thus substituted for de lui, dj'elle, d)eux, 
oVelles, and a lui, d elle, & eux, a elles. Far from that, in 
many cases it would be very wrong to use them. The learner 

When can en and y answer for persons 2 

2L* 



246 PRONOUNS. 

is therefore advised never to use en and ?/, unless he has seen 
them used by some good author in the same instance, and like- 
Wise in the following cases. 

En is generally used to stand for a person who has been re- 
presented by a noun or pronoun, in the same phrase, or a few 
words before. 

En is also used to represent a class of persons known more 
by their names or qualities than personally. 

Ex. : due dites-vous de moi ? What do you say of me ? 

Pen dis du bien, I speak well of you. 

Connaissez-vouslesministres ? Do you know the ministers ? 
Vous en parlez toujours, You are always speaking of them. 

Y is scarcely ever used for persons, except in conjunction 
with the verb penser, to think. 

Ex. : Pensez-vous a mon fils ? Do you think of my son ? 
Oui, j'y pense, Yes ; I think of him, 

| And yet Je pense a lui would be equally correct. 

N. B. The learner must look at what was said of en and y, page 234. 

Remark. Y is not used before the future and conditional 
of the verb to go, j'irai, in order to avoid the repetition of the 
same sound. 

Ex. : JHraij instead of J'y irai, I will go there. 

OF THE ENGLISH ADJECTIVE Some OR any, WHEN NOT FOLLOWED 
' BY A NOUN. 

En signifies some or any when these words are used like 
pronouns ; that is to say, when they are not followed by any 
noun ; and although en be still an indirect objective, from the 
nature of its signification, yet it supplies the place of the di- 
rect objective which is understood. 

En is always placed according to the rules laid down for 
this pronoun. 

It answers in this case both for persons and things. 

Ex. : Give me some, Donnez m'en. 

I have not any, Je ri*en ai pas, 

IN", B. It is evident, that if some, or any, had been followed by a sub- 
stantive, they would have been expressed by the partitive article. 



When is y used for persons ?— Is there any instance in which y is to be sup- 
pressed?— Mention it— What does en signify besides of it and of them? 



PRONOUNS. 247 

EXERCISE. 

The derivatives of the verbs, Numbers 4, 5, and 6, of the list, page 135. 

I foresee that this young man will become your friend, for you are 
always speaking of him. When will you write to your brother ? I 
liave not yet received a letter from him. When a man is dead, we 
think no more of him. You were waiting for those gentlemen at your 
house, you say ; well, they went there, and you were out : now they 
have gone out again, and I think that they will go there once more be- 
fore returning here. Do you want some money ? I have not any„ 
WJien will you give me some? Will you wait one week more ? Yes, 
I consent to it. Why has the servant not cleared away the table? 
Our servant has gone, and we have not any to-day. 

GENERAL RULE UPON THE PRONOUN CU. 

En, being the objective indirect of a verb, cannot be used, 

1. Without a verb. 

2. With the nominative of a verb, unless accompanying a 
noun used in apposition with the nominative of a verb. 

See of the apposition, page 187, and the impersonal neuter verbs, 
page 129. 

3. In relation to a substantive which is the objective of a 
preposition. 

4. In relation to a noun which is determined by the definite 
article the, or any other determining adjective. 

Of it and of them are not therefore translated into French, 
in any of the above four cases ; but the sentence may be con- 
strued in such a manner, that these pronouns maybe expressed 
if it is thought proper to have them. Yet they are never 
allowed after the. 

Ex. : You have broken five glasses, Vous avez casse cinq verves. 

No, sir j only three of them, Non, monsieur; seulement trois; 

or, jen'en ai casse que trois. 

Three of our scholars are absent, and two of them are sick. 
Trois de nos ecoliers sont absents, et deux sont malades ; or, deux 

autres sont malades. 
Five will arrive to-morrow, II en arriveracinq demain. 

He is one. of them, Cen est un. 

I met several Indians, and spoke to three of them. 
J'ai rencontre plusieurs Indiens, et fai parte a trois ; or, trois oVen- 

tre eux. 
The two who died were my friends. 
Les deux qui moururent itaient mes amis. 

la what instances cannot en be used ? 



248 FHONOUNg. 

Remark. En must be used as the objective of a verb that 
requires the preposition de ; as, Je ru'en servirai, I will use it 
but it cannot be used when the preposition de is expressed 
along with the verb ; thus say, Je me servis de trois, for, / 
used three of them ; and not, Je m?en servis de trois, yet it 
would be better to express the phrase in another manner. 

Rule 1. When a cardinal number or an adverb of quantity, 
or any word expressing quantity, and relating to the objective 
direct of a verb, is not followed by the substantive the quan- 
tity of which is expressed, it is necessary that this substantive 
should be represented by the pronoun en, 

Ex. : I have three, J'en ai troisi, 

I thought that you had many. 
Je pensais que vous en aviez beavxoup. 

Rule 2. When the verb is followed by an adjective or past 
participle qualifying the substantive represented by en, that 
adjective or past participle must be joined to the verb by the 
preposition de. But remember that de is only used when pre* 
ceded by en and followed by an adjective or past participle. 

Ex. : I gathered a dozen peaches, and I only found one good. 

Je cueillis une douzaine de peches, etje n'en trouvai qu?une de 
bonne, 

N. B. The general rule upon the use of en must be re* 
membered. 

EXERCISE. 

The derivatives of the verbs, Numbers 7 and 8 of the list, page 135, and the 
verb, se servir (de,) to use, to help one's self, like servir. 

Have you bought some sugar ? 1 had some, sol did not buy any» 
Give me some. How many brothers have you ? I had five, but I lost 
one lately, and at present I have four. You gave me two exercises, 
bat I have written four. Did you see many pigeons ? I saw several, 
but I killed only six ; yet three fell into a thicket, and I lost them. The 
four which I brought yesterday had been killed by our farmer. How 
many did you expect to bring ? About twenty. I would give three 
dollars for six of those large birds which we saw the other day. I gave 
those men wine, and they took eight bottles. One of them was tipsy* 
You said that two fell in the street. I will bet twenty dollars that 
you have used my pens. You would lose, sir, because I have only 
taken the two which you mended for me last Saturday. 1 bought those 
books without examining them, and when I opened them, I found three 
of them spoiled, and one soiled. I will not purchase any tea to-day, 
because I have five boxes in my store, and ten in the garret. Help 
yourself, sir. If you like those apples, take some ; we have a great 
many. The Turks do not use forks. I went to visit my birds Tue, c day 
morning, and I found two dead. How much flour do you want ? Give 

When is en used in relation to a number ?— When is de used after en? 



PRONOUNS. 240 

rile ten pounds. I have not so much, but I will give you six pounds to- 
night, and I will send you four pounds to-morrow. A hundred men 
took each a lottery ticket ; one has gained, and ninety-nine have lost. 

Of THE ENGLISH PRONOUN One AND CMS. 

One and ones have no equivalent in French ; but the phrases 
in which these pronouns are used must be translated, when 
they s are objectives, by the aid of the pronoun en, as if the Eng- 
lish "number or adverb of quantity, &c., was followed by of 
them, and the adjective. 

Ex. : Give me a good one. Donnez-m'en un bon. 

That is to say, give me one of them good. 

Remark 1. If the adjective be singular, the indefinite arti- 
cle un must precede it. If the adjective be pltfral, the prepo- 
sition de is placed before it, either in order to represent the par- 
titive article, or because the adjective follows en. 
Ex. : I bought bad ones, J 7 en achetai de mauvais. 

That is to say, I bought some of them bad. 
Remark 2. According to the general rule on the pronoun en y 
the phrase ought to be constructed without it, if one or ones r 
relate to the nominative, or be preceded by the article le } &c 3 
whether expressed or not in English, or determined by any of 
the determining adjectives, and also when not accompanied by 
a verb. 
Ex. : A good one would cost you more, 
Un bon vous couterait davantage. 

Give me those two, and I will abandon the large on% 
Donnez-moi ces deux et fabandonnerai le grand. 
I do not like large ones, Je n'aime pas les grands. 

EXERCISE. 

The verbs, Numbers 1 and 2 of the list, page 137. 

Among those peaches I found bad ones. I want a knife. Do you 
wish a large one ? No sir, give me a small one. You bought two bay 
horses, and I bought a white one. The enemy had cowardly soldiers, 
'and we had courageous ones. That water boils; put the potatoes in 
|the kettle, and throw away the bad ones. Those peaches are not ripe 9 
iboil them, and give me a better one. Run after that man, and tell him 
thfit I want to speak to him ; I will give you a shilling. I would not 
,run for that reward, or a greater one, for I ran so much this morning 
that I am tired. John, boil those beets, and bring them to me, if they 
iare good ones. That scholar is a lazy boy ; he is a wicked one too. I 
|do not want a bad servant ; I wish a faithful and a neat one. Which 
'is the elder of those two sisters ? The learned one is the elder, and the 
amiable one is the younger. These two brothers have different for- 
tunes. John is the rich one, Peter is the poor one. This violin is ex- 
cellent, bat a new one would be preferable. 

How can the pronouns one and one's be translated into French ? — What is to be 
I observed concerning the adjective that precedes the pronoun one ? — What, whelfc 
i that adjective is determined by an article, <fec. 1 



250 PRONOUNS. 



OF THE PRONOUN en SUPPLYING THE PLACE OF THE POSSESSIVE 
ADJECTIVES. 

According to the list of our possessive adjectives, page 7B ? 
the English word its, which refers to things, is translated by 
son, sa, ses, as well as his and her. 

These adjectives, son, sa, ses, seem, however, to apply ra- 
ther to persons than to things, and for the perspicuity of the 
style, the following rule is observed : — 

Rule. When the possessive adjective its, or even him or 
her, referring to nouns of the third person applied to things, 
can be, without any impropriety, turned into of it, the pronoua 
en is used in French with the verb, as usual, and holds the 
place of the possessive adjective. 

N. B. This is the only instance in which en can relate to the 
nominative of the phrase. 

Ex. : Cette riviere est rapide ; le canal en est £troit, 

That river is rapid; its channel is narrow (the channel of it.) 

But if the preposition de be introduced in the French sen- 
tence, or if the English possessive adjective be preceded by 
that or any other preposition, it would be necessary to use son% 
m, ses. 

Ex. : France is our country, and we will die in her defence, 

La France est notre pays, et nous mourrons pour sa defense. 
This table is small, and its legs have no beauty, 
Cette table est petite, et ses pieds n'ontpas de grace. 

EXERCISE. 

The verbs, Nnmbers 3, 4, and 5, list, page 137. 

The peak of TenerifTe is not certainly the highest mountain in the 
world, and yet its height is considerable. That piano is a very 
elegant one, but I do not like its sound ; it would make me fly. I did 
not know that you would fly so easily. The Andes, in America, sur- 
pass, in their length, all the mountains in the world. That army was 
victorious, because its chiefs were excellent tacticians, and its soldiens 
brave and attached to their superiors. That tree is bending under the 
weight of its fruit : if I die, I wish to die under its shade. # France 
has not preserved her conquests. That picture has its beauties, but I 
do not like the subject of it ; and its frame is too large. He clothed 
himself with a beautiful cloak, with a velvet lining. That cloak was 
remarkable, besides, for its colour and its clasp. Your brother told me 
that the clasp was a gold one. No, sir ; it was of silver, but adorned 
with two large diamonds. 

When does en supply the place of the possessive adjective 1 — Give, an exam* 
pie.— Can en be always employed in that manner? 



PRONOUNS. 



251 



SECTION V. 

OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

There are possessive pronouns, that is to say, words which 
hold the place of a substantive, and at the same time express 
the possession of it. r 

These pronouns are : 



SINGULAR 

masc. 
Le mien, 
le tien, 
le sien, 
le no tie, 
le voire, 
le leur, 



fern. 
la mienne, 
la tienne, 
,1a sienne, 
la notre, 
la votre, 
la leur, 



PLURAL. 

masc. 
les miens, 
les tiens, 
les siens, 



fern. 
les miennes, 
les tiennes, 
les siennes, 



ENGLISH. 



les n6tr.es, 
les votres, 
les leurs, 



mine. 

thine. 

his, hers j its. 

ours. 

yours. 

theirs. 



Rule. These pronouns must agree in gender and number 
with the substantives which they represent. They cannot be 
used without the article, which, when preceded by the prepo- 
sitions de or d, is contracted with them when it occurs. 

Ex. : I spoke to my fatherland hers, 
Je parlai a mon pere et au sien. 



EXERCISE. 

r The verbs, Numbers 6 and 7, list, page 137. 

My mother and yours are gathering fruit in the garden. I gather 
flowers and make nosegays for your friends and mine. We will lather 
some by and by for your sisters and mine, for I believe that you have 
not gathered any to-day. While I was speaking to his master, he was 
speaking to mine, Look at these trees : yours are small, and ours are 
high and tufted. He gave a good lesson to his children, and a short 
one to yours. Be my friend, and I will be thine. If he takes my hat 
I shall take Ms. You are satisfied with your wife, but that man is not 
satisfied with his. I always acquire knowledge by that man's conver- 
sation and yours. The late president of the bank left the property 
which he had acquired to your mother and mine. They will give all 
the fruit to their children, and only two or three apples to ours. Theirs 
are more genteel than ours, but ours will acquire more knowledge. You 
tore your apron, but your sister did not tear hers. 



[ What are the possessive pronouns ?— With what do the French possessive 
I pronouns agree 1 r 



252 PRONOUNS. } 

Remark. The English pronouns mine, thine, fyc, are not 
always translated into French as above, as the following ex- 
planation will show. 

The verb to be, followed by one of the possessive pronouns, has often 
the sense of the verb to belong to ; as, these books are mine; that is to 
say, these books belong to me. Sometimes also it only implies distinc- 
tion between the object possessed and some others ; as, these books are 
mine, for, these are my books. That difference is generally made in Eng- 
lish by throwing the emphasis either upon the noun, or the demonstra- 
tive adjective. 

In the first instance, it is not known that the object spoken of belongs 
to the person represented by the pronoun, and the phrase is used in or- 
der to affirm, to know, or to deny, that the thing belongs to that per- 
son. In the second instance, it is known that the person represented 
by the pronoun possesses one of the objects mentioned; but as it is 
wished to know, or to make known, that this is the object possessed, 
the phrase is used in order to affirm, to know, or to deny, that this is the 
object that belongs to the person. That difference of meaning is made 
in French by two different constructions. 

Rule. The possessive pronouns, (mine, thine, fyc.) coming 
after the verb to be, implying only possession, are translated 
into French by the corresponding personal pronouns preceded 
by the preposition a. 

N. B. That mode is not used for persons, except to express 
the possession by marriage, or when applied to a person over 
whom the possessor can exercise a right. 

Ex. : That house is mine (belongs to me). 
Celtemaison est a moi. 

But when the possessive pronouns, after the verb to be, signify 
both possession and distinction, the possessive pronouns must 
be used as in English. 

Ex.: Do not take that hat; it is mine : (it is my hat; the hat that 
belongs to me,) 
JVe prenez pas ce chapeau ; t'est le mien. 



EXERCISE. 

The verbs, Nnumbers 8, 9, and 10, of the list, page 137. 

These books are mine, and that pen is yours ; but wait a moment ; 
your sister brought it here, when she came in ; it is hers. Children 
assault me as soon as I go out in this country ; it was not so in mine. 
Rose of love ! that art mine. If you sell him your horse, it will be his. 
They asssaulted his house and ours, always thinking that it was yt)urs. 

Do they always stand for mine, thine, fyc. ? — How are they translated into. 
French after to be, signifying to belong? 



PRONOUNS. 253 

Come with me and show me your horse. I do not want to go to the 
stable, the third one is mine. The third one is a grey one. Well, it is 
mine. My uncle and aunt are in the parlour, and that beautiful car- 
riage and those horses are theirs. I thought that they were yours. 
Among these six houses, do you know theirs ? Theirs is the yellow 
one. Now you have seen his pictures, shall I show you mine ? This 
picture is not yours. Yes, it is mine. 

Rule 1. A noun determined in French by a demonstra- 
tive adjective, cannot be followed by a possessive pronoun 
joined to it by a preposition, and expressing the property of 
the thing spoken of: such phrases, therefore, as these boots of 
yours, cannot be literally translated into French : but the noun, 
maybe determined either by the demonstrative adjective only, 
or by a possessive adjective; as, ces bottes, or, vos bottes. In 
common conversation we might say, ces bottes que vous avez 
ld 3 or construe the phrase with any other verb. 

Rule 2. When a substantive, followed by the preposition 
of, and a possessive pronoun, is determined by the indefinite 
article, the words must be thus reversed : a friend of mine, 
un de mes amis, one of my friends. 

EXERCISE. 

The derivatives of verbs, Numbers 1 and 2, of the list, page 137. 

Where is that desk of yours which is so neat ? Take these pictures 
of mine and cany them to my father. A clerk of mine has paid the du- 
ties to the collector. Send me a horse of yours, and I will go to your 
country-sea.t. That house of yours is extremely commodious. Tell 
that lazy servant of yours that this water has boiled and boiled again. 
A friend of his concurred in his nomination, and assisted him when he 
was unfortunate. A neighbour of ours ran to us when he heard the 
noise. I always have recourse to that friend of mine when I want some 
money. That son of his has incurred his displeasure. 



SECTION VI. 

OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Relative pronouns are those which relate to a preceding 
noun or pronoun, callefl the antecedent. In the phrase, Vhomme 
quijoue, the man who plays; qui relates to the substantive 
homme ; Vhomme is then the antecedent to the pronoun rela- 
tive qui. 

Are they always translated so ?— When not ?— How can you translate into 
French a phrase in which a noun preceded by a demonstrative adjective is fol- 
lowed by a possessive pronoun ? — And when that substantive is preceded by the 
mdefraite article ? — What are relative pronouns ? 

22 



'254 Pronouns. 

We have two relative pronouns. The first concerning which 
a short explanation was given page 89 3 is : 

C iv ho, ^ 
qui < which, > when nominative to the following verb. 

( that, ) 

C whom, 1 
que < which, > when objective to the following verb. 

( that, } 

Svjhom, I r. ) 

which, J lor P ersons > \ objectives of prepositions, 
quoi what, for things, ) 
De qui, (for persons,) \ 

•rk T l /i tu 611 ) / whose, of whom, of %ohich. 

- Dont, (both for persons C ' J y J 

and things,) j 

The second relative pronoun is compounded of the ad- 
jective quel, (see page 80) and the definite article le, la, les) 
with Which it forms a single word. When this pronoun is 
preceded by the preposition de or a, it is contracted with it 3 
as follows : 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

masc. fern. rnasc. fern. 

Lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles, who, ivhich. 

duquel, de laquelle, desquels, desquelles, of id horn, of which. 

auquel, a laquelle, auxquels, auxquelles, to ivhom, to which. 

This pronoun always agrees in gender and number with its 
antecedent. It is now very seldom used, except in the instances 
explained below. 

Remark. The relative pronoun qui and que, having the 
demonstrative pronoun ce for its antecedent, stands for the 
English pronoun what, when used for that which, and repre- 
sents likewise which, when this pronoun has a sentence or a 
phrase for its antecedent. 

Ce dont stands for what, governed by of, 
Ex. : Je sais ce qui vous fait parler, 

I know what makes you speak. 

II a trouve ce qu'il avait perdu, 
He has found what he had lost. 

Mon pere est ici aujourd'hui ; ce qui me donne le terns de vous ecrire^ 
My father is here to-day, which gives me time to write to you. 
Je sais ce dont vous parlez, I know what you speak of. 

Rule 1. Relative pronouns are of the same gender, num- 
ber, and person, as their antecedents, and must come imme- 
diately after them. 

When is qui used ?— -When que ?—quoi ?—de qui 1—dont ?— What is the other 
relative pronoun 1— With what must this pronoun agree ?— Have the relative 
pronouns a number, gender, and person ?— What word do they borrow tkem. 
from ? 



PRONOUNS. 255 

Ex. : I who am here, Moi qui suis id. 

She who believes herself unfortunate, 
EUe qui se croit malheureuse. 
I am the man who saved your life, 
Je suis Vhomme qui vous sauva la vie. 
You who remember, Vous qui vous rappelez. 

Rule 2. The use of the pronoun qui and que is far more 
extensive than that of lequel, laquelle, &c. ; but there are 
instances in which the latter ought to be used instead of the 
former. 

1. Lequel, &c, must be used for a relative pronoun, which 
stands for things, and is the objective to a preposition. 

N. B. Qui is sometimes used for things personified. 

Ex. : The picture for which I offered ten dollars. 
Le tableau pour lequel fcffris dix dollars. 

2. Lequel is also used instead of qui, for a relative pronoun 
the antecedent of which is separated from it by another noun. 
This construction is however to be avoided. 

Ex. : It is a dispensation of Divine Providence, which attracts the 
attention of every body. 
C'est un effet de la divine providence lequel attire Vattention de 
tout le monde. 

Rule 3. The pronoun dont, which stands for whose, of 
•whom, and of which, must always come immediately before 
the noun of which it implies possession, when that noun is 
the nominative to a following verb ; but when that noun is the 
objective of a verb, dont is placed before the nominative of 
the verb, and the objective after. 

Ex. : You whose hands are so white, 

Vous dont les mains sont si blanches* 

You whose hands I press, 

Vous dont je presse les mains. 

I paid for the book ; the cover of which I spoiled, 

J'aipaye le livre, dont fai gate la couverture. 

Rule 4. Dont cannot be used in French, if the word of 
which the relative pronoun implies possession is the objec- 
tive of a preposition. Duquel, de laquelle, &c, are then em- 
ployed : de qui can be used for persons. 

The same occurs when the antecedent is separated from the 
noun, of which it implies possession, by another word which 
connects them together 

Is lequel used as often as qui? — When must lequel be used instead of qui ?-* 
What is said of dont in relation to its place ]— When must dont be supplied by 
11 



256 PRONOUNS. 

Ex. : The monarch in whose states we were, 

Le monarque dans les etats duquel nous etions. 
The edges of several of which, 
Les lords de plusieurs desquels. 

OF OU USED AS A RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

The adverb ou is employed as a relative pronoun instead 
of dans lequel, auquel, dans laquelle, &c, and answers for 
the English with which, in which, and also for when or 
where when these adverbs, stand in English for at which, in 
which, &c. 

Rule. OH should be used only for things, and only with a 
relation to time or place. 

Ex. : The moment when he died, 
Le moment ou U mourul. 

The house where he lives, or in which he lives, 
La maison ou il demeure. 

Ou admits the preposition de and par. 

Ex. : C'est l'arret d'ou depend ma vie, 

It is the sentence on which my life depends. 
Nous visitames les lieux par ou il avait passe, 
We visited the places through which he had passed. 

exercise. 

The derivatives of verbs 3, 4, and 6, of the list, page 137. 

The persons who came here last night will obtain for me the favour- 
which I ask. The tunes that you are now playing are not in the book 
that you brought me last Monday. My cousin sent them to me in a 
letter which I received on Thursday last, and which contained, besides, 
many particulars about a man whom you know, and against whom 
your parents have spoken. He was invested with unlimited power to 
arrest the boy who ran away from apprenticeship. He inquired every 
where ; he stopped in all the villages through which he had passed ; 
but he could not gather any information. He spoke to the mayor of 
the little city whence he had escaped. I saw what fell from the chim- 
ney., She did not come last night, which made me think that she was 
sick. We who are your sons, shall we not obtain that reward for our 
cares, which you promised to us ? I cannot remember against what I 
rubbed my coat. The work, the author of which is prosecuted, is 
very strictly forbidden. You whose sons are so attentive, tell me how 
you govern them. You go to a country for which I have a great par- 
tiality. Those boys whose laziness we have punished, will not neg- 
lect their lessons again. You whose talent we acknowledge, know 

When can ou be used as a, relative pronoun ?^-Is ou ever preceded by prepo- 
sitions ? 



PRONOUNS, 257 

that when one wishes to please, he will not succeed if he is not amia- 
ble. He wishes to see what you eat. I was in the ship, the extremity 
of the main-mast of which was struck by thunder. The situation which 
you desire was not destined for you, but for a man who speaks much 
in his own favour, and more against others. The city in which I ar- 
rived, and the village in which I lived, are as different as day and 
night. You did not tell me the country from which you came. The 
trials through which he passed, were very severe indeed.. 

Rule 1. What is sometimes used in English both as an 
adjective and a relative at the same time, and is placed before 
the noun which it represents : as, what money we had was 
taken away ; that is, all the money that we had. Phrases in 
which the pronoun what is used thus, are translated inta 
French according to the latter construction. Ex. : Tout 
Vargent que nous avionsfut emporte. 

Rule 2. The relative pronouns cannot be omitted in French 
as they are in English. 

Ex. : Where is the book you were reading ? 
Ou est le livre que vous lisiez? 
Nor can the relative pronoun, when the objective of a pre- 
position, be understood by placing the preposition at the end 
of the sentence : as, 

Do you know the man you speak of ? 
This phrase should be translated thus : 

Connaissez-vous l'homme dont vous parlez? 
Do you know the man of whom you speak ? 

EXERCISE. 

The derivatives of verbs, Numbers 7 and 8, of the list, page 137. 

I know that the wine I gave you is good, and when I welcome my 
friends I can treat them well. What money J have is at your service. 
Did you see the cat that fell from the top of the house ? No ; but I 
saw you start, and I did not know why. I am collecting information 
concerning that man, and what particulars you will give me will be 
thankfully received. I start when I see you. I lost the money you 
gave me, and I did not go to the store you mentioned, because they 
sell their goods for cash, and I had no more change. The age we live 
in is the age of light and science. You did not like the person you 
spoke of. What work he performs is excellent. Perhaps in a year 
or two you will know the person you have dealt with. Did you give 
your purse to the first man you saw ? The misfortunes I was 
plunged in, afflicted all my friends. The end he aims at is not very 
honest. The rings you received from that young lady are not as hand- 
some as mine. 

Can the relative pronouns be omitted in French as in English ? — How is what, 
used as an adjective, translated into French?— How is it when the preposition 
which governs a relative pronoun is placed at the end of the sentence 1 
22* 



258 PRONOUNS, 

OF ABSOLUTE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS'. 

The same English pronouns, who, whom, what, and which* 
can be used without any antecedent ; they are then called ab- 
solute and interrogative. They assume the latter appellation 
when a question is made. 

The absolute or interrogative pronouns are not used in 
French in the same manner as the relative pronouns, as is in- 
dicated by the following list : 

^ . ( 10 ho. ) whether nominacive ") ., , , . . , 
aul \ rohom, I or objective. [i^aS? 

Gtui, lohom, when objective of prepositions, ) e ° 

Gtu'est-ce qui? what ? when interrogative and nominative to the 

verb. 
Glue ? what ? when interrogative and objective to the verb, 
duoi ? what ? when absolute, and objective to a preposition. 
Lequel? laquelle, &c, which. 
N. B. Whose will be mentioned in a separate article. 

Rule 1. Qui, interrogative and nominative to the verb, is 
one of the French pronouns that have the power of making 
the verb that follows them interrogative or interro-negative> 
without the assistance of an auxiliary verb or a personal 
pronoun. 

Ex. : Qui parte ? W ho speaks ? 

We may also say : qui est-ce qui parte ? 

N-. B. Who and what, when nominatives, are used in the same man- 
ner in English ; but xohat, when nominative, in English, is translated 
into French by, qu? est-ce qui ? as explained in the next remark. 

Remark. Qu r est-ce qui is merely the interrogative pronoun que, 
before a verb made interrogative with the aid of, est-ce qui, instead of 
est-ce que, as qui is a relative pronoun nominative to the following verb. 

It may be observed that if que alone were used, when what is nomi- 
native, it might be mistaken for que objective : with regard to qui, 
this pronoun means who and whom but not what. It is therefore in or- 
der to establish a distinction between the different pronouns, that what, 
when nominative, is represented by qii'est-ce qui ? 
* It is likewise important to remark that several authors have used 
qui for ichat, when interrogative and nominative to the following verb; 
but although this mode may be considered correct in some very few 
cases, the learner is advised always to use qu'est-ce qui ? 

Rule 2. Que, interrogative, is used in apposition to the 
impersonal pronoun ?7, and this construction corresponds to 
English phrases in which what is the nominative to an active 
intransitive verb, used interrogatively. 

What are absolute or interrogative pronouns ? — When is qui used, when abso- 
lute or interrogative ?—When is qu'est-ce qui used?— When is que used I 



PRONOUNS* 259 

Ex. : What comes next ? Que vient-il apres ? 

Rule 3. Qiwi is used for what is, when these words are 
followed by an adjective. It is then connected with this ad- 
jective by the proposition de. 

Ex. : What is more amusing ? Quoi de plus amusant ? 

It is also used for what, when this pronoun comes after the 
verb of which it is the objective. 

Ex. : I do not know what, Je ne sais quoi. 

Rule 4. The preposition by which an interrogative pro- 
noun is governed, must be placed before it, and not at the end 
of the sentence, as in English. 

Ex. : What did you do that with? Avec quoi avez-vous fait cela? 

Rule 5. The pronoun lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles, 
is used interrogatively, and stands for which, when this pro- 
noun expresses a distinction. 

Ex. : Which of these men ? Lequel de ces hommes ? 

Rule 6. When which is absolute in English, it can be 
translated into French in two different manners. 

1. Which must be translated by lequel, laquelle, &c, 
when it is the objective of the verb which follows it only, 
and not that of the verb that precedes, whose objective is the 
whole of the second part of the sentence. 

Ex. : I do not know which of these men I will take, 
Je ne sais pas lequel de ces hommes je prendrai. 

2. When which has to be considered in English a com- 
pound relative pronoun, one part of which is governed by the 
first verb, and the other by the second verb, the phrase must 
be reversed as follows : 

Ex. : Choose which of these books you like best, 
Choose those of these books that you like best. 
N. B. The latter construction will be explained in the next section. 

Remark. The interrogative pronouns, who, what, and 
which, are often translated by quel, quelle, quels, quelles, in- 
stead of qui and que, before the verb Stre, to be, and although 
the sense of the two phrases be not altogether the same, the 
former way is preferred to the latter, as it is not attended with 
the harshness of the meeting of two vowels. 

The phrase expressed with quel is elliptical : thus when we 
say, quel est ce monsieur ? who is that gentleman ? I under- 
stand, quel monsieur est ce monsieur ? 

When is quoi used?— What does quoi de signify ?— Can quel, quelle, &c, be ever 
used instead of qui 7 — For what purpose 1— When is lequel used for which ?— How 
is which translated into French when used absolutely ? 



260 PRONOTJNS, 



EXERCISE. 

The derivatives of the verb, Number 9, list, page 137. 

Who talks ? What do you want ? I know who sings. Whom 
did you consult? What do you walk so fast for. What do you 
wish to have this for ? What belongs to you here ? Which of these 
three young men will you select for your friend ? What man is that ? 
I know who will obtain what you ask for. That bottle will not con- 
tain what is in that dish. What is more beautiful than virtue ? 
Which of those ladies do you think the most amiable ? What books 
do you use? What is it? What was contained in that drawer? 
Which of these gloves are yours ? Which of these two young ladies 
is your sister ? To whom do you speak ? I have guessed which of 
these books you prefer. Who is that certain uncle who is continually 
the hero of the history ? What a wonderful tale. What is that music? 
Who was that lady who wished to speak to me ? What succeeds is 
seldom condemned. 

OF THE ABSOLUTE OR INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN whose. 

The pronoun whose, which implies possession, is translated 
into French by, a qui, when being used either absolutely or 
interrogatively, it is accompanied by the verb to be. The 
phrase is construed as follows : 

Ex. : A qui est cette bague ? J ^ 05e ¥ n £ » this \ 

*• ■ ; & ( Whose is this ring ? 

When whose is used without the verb to be, it may be ex- 
pressed by one or the other of the following modes. 

Je sais quelle est la maison qui vous conviendrait. 
I know whose house loould suit you. 



auelle bague? ) Whose rim? *> 
La bague de qui? J s " 



N. B. Dont is only relative, and cannot be used interro- 
gatively, 

EXERCISE. 

The derivatives of the verb, Number 10, list, page 137. 

Whose medal is this ? Whose pens are those ? Whose is this 
handkerchief? Is it yours? No, madam, it is mine. Whose is it ? 
That gentleman's horse would suit me very well. Whose horse? I 
know whose watch you borrowed. I will tell you whose system I have 
adopted. I bought the king of Spain's watch. Whose watch did you 
buy ? Mary has soiled my cousin's book. Whose book has she soiled ? 
Hers. Whose are these gloves 1 They are mine. 

How is the interrogative pronoun whose, translated before to be ? — How when 
used without to be 1 — Can dont be used interrogatively ? 



PRONOUNS. 261 

SECTION VII. 
Of THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN. 

Demonstrative pronouns are those which not only point 
out an object, but also represent it As they are expressed very 
differently in the two languages, a table of these pronouns, and 
their various meanings, will follow. 

Celui, m. s. *) C The om ] fht that ] 

celle,/., I ^ the one ^ that ^.^ 

ceux,m^. t theories \ which, f™ I 

celles,/.p. J 4 ' the ones J ' those J 

Qui is used when this relative pronoun is nominative to the 
following verb and que when it is objective. 

Celui-ci, this or this one. Celui-la, that or that one. 

celle-ci, this or this one. celle-ia, that or that one. 

ceux-ci, these or these ones. ceux-la, those or those ones. 

celles-ci, these or these ones. celles-la, those or those ones. 

Ceci, this. Cela, ce, that. 

N. B. The last two pronouns are used when this and that do 
not refer to any preceding noun, but are used absolutely, or in 
reference to a verb. They can in no instance refer to persons, 
Ce is used only before the verb ctre. 

Ex. : This is good ; that is bad. Ceci est bon ; cela est mauvais. 

Rule. The pronouns celui and celui-ci, &c, must agree in 
gender and number with the substantives which they represent 

EXERCISE. • 

. The irregular verbs benir, fleurir, hair, pages 138 and 139. 

Your gun is not so handsome as the one that I have bought from the 
captain. What do you think of this beer ? I think that this is not so. 
good as that. That is not possible, because that which you tasted be- 
fore cost me five dollars a barrel, while this cost me only two dollars. 
These boys are as noisy as those are silent. That is the reason why I 
liate them. These trees blossom in May, those in June. When that 
church was flourishing, I used to sell there hallowed bread on Good 
Friday ; that was my greatest pleasure. The bookseller has different 
sorts of books, and he gives us those for which we ask. Look at these 
engravings, and see those. I like them very well, but that one is the 
best of all. The one which is so black has no effect ; but the ones that 
you have showed me are very excellent. If you think that this boy is 
good, why do you hate him ? This is tolerable, but that is very bad. 
He was here to-day. That makes me think that he is better. 

Rule 1. The demonstrative pronouns are expressed by 
celui, celle, ceux, celles, without ci and Id, when they are fol- 

What are demonstrative pronouns ?— What does celui qui stand for ?— What 
does celui-ci signify ?— What is the feminine of that pronoun ?— The plural mas- 
culine ?— When are ceci mdcela used ?— Which of these pronouns is used before 
a preposition ? 






262 PRONOUNS* 

I 

lowed by a preposition, or by ou standing for a preposition and 
the relative pronouns. 

Ex. : The one for whom I work, Celui pour qui je travaille. 
Rule 2. A personal pronoun, having a general sense, and 
followed by a relative pronoun, is always translated into French, 
by a demonstrative pronoun of the same gender and number, 
and the relative pronoun is expressed as usual. 
Ex. : He who weeps will be consoled, 
Celui qui pleure sera console. 
But when the pronoun relates to one person only, it is trans- 
lated according to the previous rules. 

Ex. : She (the queen) who believes herself unfortunate, 
Elle qui set croit malheureuse. 

Celui, celle, ceux, celles, represent likewise one, followed by 
a relative pronoun. 

Ex. : I do not esteem one who acts so, 
Je n'estime pas celui qui agit ainsi. 
N. B. If elegance or the nature of the sentence requires the 
relative pronoun to be separated from the personal, by any 
word, the personal pronoun must be translated by celui-ci and 

mlui-lcl. 

Ex. : He is happy who is satisfied with little, 
Celui-la est heureux qui se contente de peu. 

Remark 1. Cela stands for it, when this pronoun represents 
a sentence, and is not tha nominative of the verb to be. 
Ex. : Do not go there, since it displeases your father, 
JSPy allez pas pruisque cela deplait a voire pere. 

Remark 2. Cela stands for so, as well as le, with this differ- 
ence, that le, signifying it, relates to the thing itself, and cela 
to the mode of expressing it. 

Thus, je ne Vaipas dit, signifies, I did not say it at all. 

And, je ri>ai pas dit cela, means,/ did not say exactly so ; I 
did not use these words. 

Rule 3. Sometimes the possessive case in English implies 
the possession of a thing understood. In French, that thing is 
represented by the demonstrative pronouns, celui, celle, ceux, 
celles, connected with the name of the person who possesses., 
by the preposition de. 

Ex. : My horses are white and the general's are grey, 

Mes ckevaux sont blancs et ceux du general sont gris. 

Rule 4. Celui-ci, celui-ld, &c, are used before a relative 
pronoun, to point out a thing which is within sight. In this 

When are these pronouns used to supply the place of the personal pronouns? 
?r-When that of the English possessive case \ 



PRONOUNS. 263 

ease the emphasis falls on the pronouns, this, that, or, this one, 
that one, &c, in the English sentence. 

Ex. : Look at that table and see this, which cost me fifty dollars, 

Regardez cette table etvoyezcelle-ci, quim r a coute cinquante dollars. 

Remark. Phrases in which the one, the ones, are used at 
the end of the sentence, must be reversed ; as follows : 

Ex. : This book is the one, Vest ce livre. • 

EXERCISE. 

: The rest of the irregular verbs of the list, page 139. 

He who wishes to be happy is not always so. He who will eat that 
trout must pay for it. My ribbons are new, and my sister's are nearly 
worn out. I will give you my permission, but will you obtain your 
father's ? She whom I will show you, will captivate your heart. I 
will not lend anymore money to my comrades, since he, to -whom I 
would have given my_ fortnne, has betrayed me. You remember that 
merchant whom you introduced to me, the one with whom you were so 
often; well, he has failed. I have heard the sound of her steps, of the 
steps of her whom I love. Here lies he who was the master of kings . 
Among all these watches, I prefer that which never stops. He always 
dances well for whom fortune pipes. I should like to see your key ; I 
mean the one with which you opened my door. Is this the one? No 5 
Sir, that is not the one. If your hat is handsome, your mother's is beau- 
tiful. She, of whom I spoke to you, will become a powerful princess. 
They who talk will be punished. This picture is not the one for which 
I offered ten dollars. Yes, sir, it is. Those verses are not half as good 
as your friend's. 

Rule 1. Celui-ci and celui-ld, celle-ci and celle-la, &c, are 
used for the adjectives, the latter and the former. Those con- 
structed with ci always mean the latter, and those to which Id 
is added mean the former. 

Rule 2. It may be perceived, that in order to make a dis- 
tinction between this and that, these and those, in French, we 
use the adverbs of place, ci and Za, here and there, after the 
pronouns celui, celle, &c. This distinction is also made to 
prevent equivocation with substantives or numeral adjectives, 
preceded by the demonstrative adjective ce, cet, cette, ces, 
which answer both for this and thai, these and those. ' Ci and 
la are added to the noun or numeral adjective, and connected 
to it by a hyphen. 

Ex. : Ce pays-ci, ce pays-la, ces deux-la. 

This country. that country. those two countries. 

EXERCISE. 

The first three verbs of the list, page 140. 

If you will sit dowa a moment, I will call John and his brother ; the 
latter will stay with you, the former will go out with me. Take this 

How is the one translated at the end of a sentence 1 — How are the latter and 
the former translated into French 1— How can a distinction be made between 
nouns preceded by this, and nouns preceded by that? 



264 PRONOUNS. 

chair instead of that one, and sit down. This machine is moved hj 
springs, and those two go by steam. I do not know which of those two 
houses to choose. This is too small and that is too large. These two 
words have different meanings •" the former has more force, and the lat- 
ter is more elegant. This city is more pleasant than the other. This 
street is very large. That man is queer enough ; he wants this pic- 
ture, and will not take that one. That action is deserving of blame. 
Since it will not*rain to-day, it will rain to-morrow. Did it rain on that 
day ? These laws are not better than those we had before. 

Rule. There are two modes of translating into French the 
pronouns, this, that, these, those, preceding the verb to be, and 
used in reference to a following substantive. 

1. The verb etre is preceded by the adjective ce, and followed 
by the adverb Id. 

Ex. : This is my object, Vest la mon but. 

Those are my means, Ce sont la mes moyens. 

2. The pronouns this and that, with their plurals these and 
those, and the verb to be, are all represented by two preposi- 
sitions, which serve to point out objects, viz. : void and voild\ 
generally meaning behold. 

Ex.: This is my servant, Void mon domestique. 

These are my children, Voila mes enfans. 

But in interrogative sentences, the former mode only is used 
The adjective ce is then, of course, placed after the verb, and 
followed by Id. Both ce and Id are generally connected with 
the verb by hyphens. 

Ex,: Is this your daughter ? Est-ce-la votrefille ? 

Are these your horses? Sont-ce-la vos chevaux ? 

EXERCISE. 

The verbs, Numbers 4, 5, and 6, of the list, page 140. 

What do I see ! Is this my son ? I cannot believe that this is my 
native land. You know that those are the last words of your dying 
protector. This is my portion, and that is yours. Is this my watch ? 
Was this your umbrella 1 Will that be your room ? These are my 
uncle's conditions, and those are my father's. Is this your exercise ? 
Are these his verses ? Are these your promises ? This is my friend. 
These were my former comrades. 

SECTION VIII. 

OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

Those that are never pined to a substantive. 

On. (Every thing which relates to that pronoun has been 
explained, page 230.) 

How are this, that, &c, before the verb to be, and referring to a noun following-, 
translated into French 1— Is it so in interrogative sentences 1 — What are inde- 
finite pronouns ? 



PRONOUNS, 265 

CiueiqiAm, some body, some one, one, any body, any one. 

Quelques-uns, some, some persons. 

This pronoun is used without relation to any substantive, 
and only to represent persons. It is used in the plural, only 
when nominative to the following verb, and is supplied, when 
objective, by quelques personnes, some persons. 

Quelqu'un is used for any body, any one, only in interroga- 
tive sentences. These words, when the phrase is affirmative, 
are translated by quiconque, or qui que ce soit, whoever it may 
be ; and when accompanied by not, they are translated by 
personne, as mentioned again below. 

In interrogative phrases, when quelquhm is initial, the verb 
is made interrogative by means of the pronoun il. 

Quelqu'un represents one followed by a relative pronoun, 
as was mentioned in the fifth remark, page 231. 
Ex. : I would not esteem one who would act so, 
Je n'estimsraispas-quelqu'un qui agirait ainsi. 

Quelqu'un, ) 

Quelqu'une, ^ome one, any one. 

nnfZtl'T^ I «™e, any, some few. 
(4uelques-unes, $ ' J > J 

This pronoun is used in the feminine and plural, only when 
It relates to some noun or pronoun expressed in the same sen- 
tence, or represented by the pronoun en, which may accom- 
pany it when it is objective to the verb, according to the gene- 
ral rules laid down for en, page 247. 

It relates then both to persons and things, but to the latter 
only when they represent objects that can be counted. 
Ex. : Some one of these young ladies, 
Quelquhme de ces demoiselles. 
I will see some of them, 
J 1 en vefrai quelques-uns, or quelques-uties. 

When accompanied by an adjective, it must be connected 
with it by the preposition de. 

Ex. : Give me some good ones, 

Donnez irten quelques-uns de bons. \ 

It is very often used in French, although not represented by 
any word in English, in order to convey an idea of choice, or 
to express some few, as in the latter example, in which the 
English phrase might be translated, according to the rule, page 
249, by, donnez-m'en de bons. 

Remark 1. Quelqu'un, quelqu'une, &c, cannot be used 

When does quelqu'un agree with a noun in gender and number?— When does 
quelqu'un stand for one ?— What pronoun must accompany quelqu'un, and when .— 
How is some, when repeated, translated into French ?— With what sorts of verbs 
"would it be improper to use quelqu'un? 

23 



266 PRONOUNS. 

when the sentence is negative. It may be represented by per* 
sonne when it stands for a person, and must be omitted when 
it is used to signify things. If the sentence be interro-nega- 
live, quelqu'un is employed as usual. 

Remark 2. Some.. ..some, must be translated by les uns : 
les autres. 

Ex. : Some are good, some are bad, 

Les uns sent bons, les autres sont mauvais. 

Personne, nobody, no one, 

This pronoun, either subject or regimen, requires the verb 
to be put in the negative, but without pas. When personne is 
followed by an adjective, it is connected with it by the prepo- 
sition de. Personne is always masculine. 

Ex. : Personne n'est venu, Nobody has called. 

Je ne connais personne d'heureux, I know nobody happy. 

Remark. In dubitative sentences, personne is often used 
for any body, and does not then require the verb to be preceded 
by ne. 

Ex. : Personne a-t-il jamais parle, ainsi ? 
Has any body ever spoken thus ? 
Chacun, ) , , 

Chacune \ eaca > every one > every hody ' 
Chacun, meaning the generality, is used only in the mas- 
culine. But used as a distributive pronoun, which refers to a 
substantive expressed in the sentence, it agrees with it in gen- 
der. Its sense excludes the plural. 

Ex. : Chacun a ses defauts, Every body has his faults, 

Voyez separement chacune de ces medailles, 
Look at each of these medals separately. 

Chacun, although singular is sornetimes followed by son, 
sa, ses, and sometimes bydeur, leurs. 

Ex. : Rernettez ces medailles chacune en sa pla.ee, 
Return those medals each into Us place. 
Rernettez chacune, en leur place, les medailles que vous avez 

prises, 
Return each of the medals you have taken into its place. 
It is again desirable that some grammarian, more fond of showing 
his good sense than his sagacity, would propose to do away with this 
difficulty, which is not only puzzling, but also in direct opposition to 
the rules given for the use of the possessive adjective leur. Leur sig- 
nifies, according to all grammarians, one thing common to several per- 
sons or things ; and yet, the same grammarians want, in this case, leur 
to qualify a thing that relates but to a single object. Leur place, signi- 
fies, the place of them ; but each medal has its place, and several medals 

What is said of personne ? — Is personne always negative ? — What does chacun 
stand for? — When is the possessive adjective, after chacun, expressed by son, sa, 
ses, and when by leur ? 



PRONOUNS. 26? 

have their places, and net their place. "We find in the Gramma're des 
Grammaires, that we must say, ces charreltes perdront lews essieux, these 
carts will lose their axie-trees, and not lew cssieu, because each cart has 
its axle-tree, and also, ces charrettes perdront chacune lew essieu. Every 
body will confess that this is a mere exception occasioned by the use of 
■chacune, and that it would be very difficult to explain, in the latter sen- 
tence, the meaning of leur. Yet, as examples are found in the best 
French authors, of the use of leur after chacun, in some peculiar cases, 
it is indispensable to give the rules laid down for the explanation of this 
difficulty. The learner may, nevertheless, avoid it by omitting chacun. 
When chacun, contrasted with a plural noun, is accompanied by an ac- 
tive intransitive verb, it is still more difficult to distinguish between 5011 
and lew* The best way tor the learner is to construct the phrase with- 
out this pronoun. 

There is no difficulty in those phrases where chacun is not 
contrasted with a plural number ; for then son, sa> ses, must 
be used: as, 

Donnez a chacun sa part. 
Give to each his share. 

Rule. In phrases where chacun is contrasted with a plu- 
ral to which it refers, son. sa, ses. must be employed, when 
chacun is placed after the direct objective to the verb; but 
feur, leur s, must be used when chacun is placed before the di- 
rect objective. (See the above examples.) 

Quiconque, whoever, whomever, whosoever, whomsoever. 
Remark. Whichever, whichsoever, whatever, whatsoever, 
are translated into French like that which. 
Autrui, other people, others. 

Autrui is only used in proverbial sentences, and after a pre- 
position. 

Rien, nothing-, not any thing. 

If rien is accompanied by a verb, that verb must be preceded 
by ne; if followed by an adjective, it must be connected with, 
it by the preposition de. 

Ex. : Je ne trouve rien de plus beau, 
I find nothing handsomer. 
Remark 1. In dubitative sentences, rien is often used for 
anything, and the verb is not preceded by ne. 
Ex. : Avez-vous rien mange de meilleur ? 
Have you eaten any thing better! 

Remark 2. Rien. governed by a verb in the infinitive, is 
most generally placed before it. 
Ex. . II ne sail rien faire, 

He does not know how to do an y thins:. 

What is said of quiconque ?— Of autrui ?— Of rien]— Is rien used but in negative 
sentences? 



268 PRONOUNS. 

EXERCISE. 

1 The verbs, Numbers 7, 8, and 9, of the list, page 140. 

Somebody told me yesterday that you are going to Europe. Every- 
body speaks of me, and yet I speak of nobody. Some say that you 
■will succeed. I do not expect much from one who betrays his country. 
Providence watches upon every body. Have you spoken to any body 
of my design ? Have you a good pen ? I have some there ; choose a 
good one. I do not see any. I will find some good one for you. 
Some of these ladies will come with me. Each of the young ladies 
had a nosegay, and some of them gave me theirs. Whoever has seen 
those pictures, knows that some cost much money, and some nothing. 
I foresee, from what. I have been told by somebody, that you will not 
be married this year. Has any body spoken to you about it ? These 
two strangers brought each his present. They spoke, each in his own 
language, and brought back the answer, each to his own master. Da 
not detain the property of others. This speech is addressed to whom- 
soever is guilty. He finds no one honest. I have nothing in this world 
which attaches me to life. Do you see any thing tolerable in this work ? 
He always goes away without saying any thing. Will any body fore- 
see our design ? This boy will not touch any thing. 

SECOND CLASS. 

Those which are always joined to a substantive. 

Quelque, some, (singular.) 
Quelques, a few, some, (plural.) 

The pronoun some is expressed by quelque when it sig- 
nifies one out of several, or a few out of a larger number^ 
and is always, as. indicated by the above title, joined to a 
substantive. 

It is evident, by the following example, that some in the 
singular, is not here a partitive article, for it is connected 
with an individual. (See what was said on this subject^ 
page 66.) 

Ex. : Vous trouverez peut-etre quelque personne obligeante, 
You will perhaps find some obliging person. 
J'ai la quelques livres, / have there a few, or some books, 

Quelque cannot be used after negative verbs, with which it 
is supplied by aucun, as explained below ; but it is employed 
after negative interrogative verbs. 

When quelque is joined to the word chose, those two words 
meaning something or any thing, take the masculine gender ? 
and are connected with the following adjective by the prepo- 
sition de, as was mentioned page 156. 

When is some expressed by quelque ? — By what is quelque supplied in negative 
sentences 1 



PRONOUNS. " 269 

Ex. : J'ai quelque chose de bon, I have something good. 

Chaque, each, every. 

This pronoun is never used but after the noun in French^, 
and corresponds with the above words, only when they come 
after the noun in English. 

Ex.: II acceptera une place quelconque, 

He will accept a situation, whatever it may he. 

N, B. Whatever, placed before the noun, will be found explained, 
among the pronouns of the fourth class. 

Quelconque represents the adjective any, when this adjec- 
tive conveys the idea of an exclusion or choice. 

Ex. : Give me any book, Donnez-moi un livre quelconque. 

N. B. Any, thus used in English, can also be expressed by qui que 
ce soit, quoi que ce soil, &c, as explained below. 

Certain \ 

ru»*L;w« } certain, and some, used instead of certain. 
Certains \ 

Certaines s 

This pronoun is applied to both persons and things, and is 
always placed before the substantives. (See page 204.) 

It may be preceded by the indefinite article un, une, in the 
singular, or the partitive article expressed by the preposition 
de, alone, in the plural. 

EXERCISE. 

The verbs, Numbers 10 and 11, list, page 140. 
You have read that in some ancient author. I will purchase some 

i few pictures for this parlour. This has been written, by some French- 
man or Spaniard, because I see in it the style of a foreigner. Your 
opinion will certainly prevail, if it has not yet prevailed^ among cer- 
tain persons. If you find some kind of wine better than this and 
equally cheap, please to inform me of it. If I could find some house 

I in your ne : ghbourhood, I would hire it. I would take any house. 

\ What do you want to show me? Is it anything interesting ? The 
wise look upon every man as their equal. Tell him that 1 want an 
answer^ whatever it maybe. A certain man, who wished to show 
me his talents, spoke to me for several hours. I will not send my 
goods to these merchants because they have certain clerks whom I do 

!not like. Do you know anything new ? 
What is said of chaque 1— Of quelconque ?— AVhat does quelconque represent '-— 
What does certain stand for ? 

23* 



£70 PRONOUNS. 

THIRD CLASS. 

Those which are sometimes joined to a substantive, and 
sometimes not. 

N. B. These pronouns being numerous, it has been judged proper 
to divide them into two parts. 

Nul 



Nulle $ n °> n0ne ' 

"Dog \\X\ ) 

Pas une 5 no > none > not one ' 

These three pronouns have nearly the same signification, 
and require the verb to be preceded by ne. But when subject 
to the verb, nul is the only one which can, properly, be used 
in a general and absolute manner. It has then the same sig- 
nification as no man. 

Ex. : Nul n'est content de sa fortune, 

JVo man is satisfied with his fortune* 

Aucun and pas un are seldom used without being followed 
by a substantive. Pas un expresses a more complete exclu- 
sion than aucun. 

When objective to the verb, nul is only employed when fol- 
lowed by a substantive, Aucun and pas un may be accompa- 
nied by a substantive, or not ; but in the latter case, as these 
pronouns are compounded with the number un, the pronoun 
en ought to be used with the verb. 

Ex.: Je n'en ai aucun, I have none. 

Aucun, in negative sentences, corresponds to quelque. 
Ex. : Je ne joue d'aucun instrument, I play on no instrument. 

Remark. Aucun may be used, in dubitative sentences, in 
the sense of quelqu^un or quelque. It is not then accompanied 
by ne. 

Ex. : Parmi tous mes amis, en trouverez-vous aucun qui parle ainsi ? 
Among all my friends, ivill you find any one who speaks thus ? 

No, followed by a substantive, in elliptical sentences, in which 
it is initial, is translated by pas de. 

Ex. : No taxes ! Pas de taxes ! 



What is the difference between nul, aucun, and pasun ? — By what pronoun does 
aucun require to be accompanied, when it is the objective of a verb?—Is aucan 
always negative 7 



PRONOUNS. 271 

None, in similar phrases, is translated by treve d. 
Ex. : None of your tales, Treve a vos contes. 

Autre, other, else. 

This pronoun is preceded by the articles or indefinite pro- 
nouns. 

Un autre, d'autres, another, others, 

Gluelqu'un autre, somebody else. 

Gluelqu'autre chose, something else, 

Rien autre, nothing else. 

The pronoun one after another is never expressed in French 5 
but en must be used with the verb, when autre is preceded by 
the indefinite or partitive article, or by a number. 

Ex. : Pen ai un autre, I have another. 

En is not expressed if autre be preceded by the definite 
article. 

Ex. : J'ai l'autre, I have the other. 

L'un l'autre, each other, one another. 

If any preposition precedes the English pronouns one ano- 
ther or each other, that preposition must be placed in French 
between Vun and V autre.) 

Ex. : L'un contre l'autre, Against one another. 

L'un et l'autre, both. 

These two words mark union, and require the verb to which 
they are nominatives, to be in the plural* 

■' Both is expressed by Vun V autre, when it relates to two substantives ; 
but when it refers to adjectives or other parts of speech, it is translated 
differently, as will be shown in its proper place. 

Meme 



Memes < same - 

This pronoun is generally preceded by an article ; it is of 
both genders. 

It is very often used for the pronouns himself, herself, itself 
and themselves. 

The conjunction as or that, is, after same, expressed in 
French by que. 

The same as, is generally translated into French by comme, 
like ; and the same, at the end of a sentence, is rendered by la 
mems chose, or de la meme maniere. 



What does autre answer for ?— When does it require to be accompanied by enl 
—What is said of Vun l'autre ?— Of Vun et I 'autre /—Of meme?— How is the con- 
junction as, after same, translated into French 1— How is the same as expressed I 



272 pronouns, 

exercise. 

The derivatives of all the verbs of the list, page 140. 

No man is perfectly happy. No science without study. Not one of 
them has met your father. How could I soften my friends ? I have 
none. I had determined not to listen to any of his tales ; but, as soon 
as he commenced, I sat down again. I again saw one of the two sisters, 
but only had a glimpse of the other. I did not speak to that gentleman,, 
for I was introduced to another. Tell us something else now. None 
of these brothers w r as promoted to that dignity, which is almost equi- 
valent to a title of nobility. Relate your story to other persons. They 
cheat each other. You will seldom see one of them without the other. 
They always dress like one another. They are both sick, and they 
both wish to be in the same room. This tragedy is the same thatl was; 
reading to you , but the other one is not by the same author. Do the- 
same as I have done, and you will not be sorry for it. The king him- 
self would be refused. If your father were here, you would not speak 
the same, 

Tel ) 

Telle f h 

Tels ( sum ' 

Telles 3 
The indefinite article which generally follows thispronoun in 
English, is placed before the word tel in French. If the noun 
be plural, tels or telles must be preceded by the partitive arti- 
cle expressed by de. 

Ex. : Un tel homme, Such a man. 

De telles personnes, Such persons. 

Such, followed by an adjective, is expressed in French by 
the adverb si, so, to which the indefinite article is prefixed in 
the singular, and de in the plural. 

Ex. : C'est une si belle femme ! She is such a fine woman ! 

II a de si jolies fleurs ! He has such pretty flowers ! 

Such a, signifying so great a, is also expressed by si. 
Ex. : II est si bete, He is such a fool. 

Such, prefixed to a noun, which is followed by the compa- 
rative conjunction as y is omitted in French, but as is expressed 
by comme, like. 

Ex. : Such a man as that, Un homme comme celui-la, 

A man like that. 
Such as is translated by tel que. 

Ex. : Such as you are, Tel que vous etes. 



3d 



How are the articles used with tel?— How is such translated into French when 
it precedes an adjective ?— How when it signifies so great a?— How when it pre- 
cedes a substantive followed by as? 



> all, < 



pronouns, 273 

Plusieurs, several. 

As the word plusieurs implies quantity, the pronoun en 
should be used with the verb, if the substantive determined by 
plusiturs has been expressed before, and is not repeated after 
that pronoun. 
Tout 

?ous G 
Toutes 

When tout is used alone, it means every thing, all things 
which expressions are seldom translated into French differently* 

Ex. : Tout nous abandorme au moment de la mort, 
Every thing forsakes us at the moment of death. 

In this case, it may be used as an objective direct, and is then 
placed after the verb in simple tenses, and between the auxili- 
ary and the verb in compound tenses. It precedes, however^ 
a verb in the infinitive. 

Ex. : II a tout avoue, He has confessed everything, 

Je ne veux pas tout dire, J do notwishto say everything. 

All, followed hy the relative pronoun that, either expressed 
or understood, is translated into French by, tout ce qui, tout ce 
que, all that which : the latter is used when objective; the for- 
mer when nominative. 

Ex. : Tout ce que j'ai, Ml I have. 

Tout ce qui m'embarrasse, All that embarrasses me. 

Tons, in the plural, and without a substantive, signifies 
eoery body, or all. 

Ex. : Tous versaient des torrens de larmes, 
They all shed torrents of tears. 

All, followed by the relative pronoun who or whom, is used 
i in French as an adjective to a demonstrative pronoun intro- 
! duced into the French sentence. 

Ex. : All who sin, Tous ceax quipechent. 

When united to ? substantive, this pronoun is used either 
collectively or distributively. 

Considered collectively, tout signifies the totality of a thing 
or of a species, and is then followed by the article either de- 
finite or indefinite. 

What is said of plusieurs ?— What does tout signify v when used alone 1— When 
Is all expressed by tout ce qui, tout ce que /—How is tout used when united with a 
j $ubstantive 1— When does it not, even in that instance, require to be followed by 
ijm article ? — What is the place of tout with regard to a verb 1 



274 pronouns, 

Ex. : T oute la terre, All the earth. 

Tous les corps celestes, Ml the celestial bodies. 

Tout, toute, followed either by the definite article le, id, le^ 
t>r the indefinite un or une, represents in French the word 
whole, preceded by the same articles. 

Tout Punivers, The Whole universe. 

Toute la France, The whole of France. 

Tout un etat, A whole State. 

Toute une fortune, Aw hole fortune. 

Remark, When followed by the name of a city, tout re- 
mains masculine, whatever may be the gender of that proper 
name> and then only, takes no article. 

Ex. : Tout Venise, The whole of Venice. 

When all qualifies a pronoun which is either the nominative 
or the objective of a verb, it is placed after the verb. 

Ex. : lis parlent tous, They all talk* 

All is often followed by of in English, particularly before a 
pronoun ; but tous always comes after the pronoun in French. 

Ex. : Vous tous, Jill of you. 

Considered distributively. tout signifies chaque, each; m 
$$ case, fi IS not accompanied by the article. 

Ex. : Tout bien est desirable, Every good is desirable. 

Tout means any, when the noun which this adjective qua- 
lifies, is followed by a relative pronoun. 

Ex. : Tout liomme qui aime la verite, Any man who likes truth. 

Tous, toutes, in the plural, conveys the meaning of the 
English pronoun every, with more force than chaque. It must 
then be followed by the article les. 

Ex. : Tous les matins, Every morning. 

Everybody, which is sometimes rendered by chacun, is mo: 
expressive when translated by tout le monde, all the people. 

Tout is sometimes used as an adverb, and requires some explanation^ 
which will be given with that part of speech. 

It stands also for however, as will be explained below. 

EXERCISE. 

The irregular verbs of the third conjugation, second list, page 142. 
Do you know such a person ? You will deliver this message to Mr 
Such-a-one. Why do you go with such men ? Your brother is such 

What are the other uses of that pronoun ? 






PRONOUNS. 275 

a bad boy, that I do not know how to correct him. Severn! ladles will 
come to-night, and every thing will be prepared. I was with him all 
day. All is in God, and God is in all. Take all that you can carry ; 
for your note will fall due to-morrow, and I cannot pay you. My note 
has fallen due to-day. Those airs do not become you well. I will tell 
you all I know. If [ could get such a watch as you showed me, I would 
be satisfied. Stay here ; you are such cowards ! The whole of Paris 
went to see that phenomenon. They all came, and did not know what 
to do. Any man who loves his country becomes a soldier in war. I 
have done every thing for them. He comes every day before five 
o'clock. I go to the country every summer, but I spend every winter 
in town. That book interested us during a whole year. The whole 
evening was spent in those innocent amusements. 

FOURTH CLASS. 

Of those which are followed by que. 

Ctui que cesoitqui ) , L 

_ • ^ fA+ ••>. > vj Iioever.lv fiosoever. 

qui que ce tut qui ) ' 

qui que whoever (before the verb to be,) 

*■ • " r* * r whomever, whomsoever, 

qui que ce lut que ) • 

quoi que whatever. 

quel que \ 

quelle que f whoever, % when placed before the verb to he, and 

quels que £ whatever, ) relating to a noun that follows it. 



quelles que 
quelque. .. 
quelques . . . que j W ;c/ ' \ que, 



quelque .... que > , . C when followed by a noun placed before 



immediately followed by an ad- 
quelqn.e . . . que ) , , } jective or an adverb, and relating 

tout ..que) owe fi?? V to a noun or pronoun placed after 

\ que. 

All the above pronouns, except tout. . .que, require that the 
verb which folio ws them be used in the subjunctive mood. 

N. B. The difference between quelque.., que and tout... que is, that 
the latter precedes a qualification that really exists, while the former 
cjnveys an idea of doubt. 

Ex. : Gtui que ce soit qui me demande, 
Whoever may ask for me. 
Gtu.i que ce f&t qui le deraandat, 
Whoever would ask for him, 

What is the French for whoever?— -For whoever before the verb to be?— Tor 
whomever? — For whatever? — When must whoever and whatever be translated by 
quel que, quelle que, &c. ? — When is whatever translated by quelque . . . que ? — When 
is however translated by quelque . . . que 1— What mood do these pronouns require 
to be followed by?— What is the exception'?— What is the difference between 
j quelque . . . que and tout ..que 1 



S76 PRONOUNS. 

Q,ui que vous soyez, whoever you may be 6 

Q,ui que ce soit que je punisse, whomsoever I may punish* 

Gluoi que vous fassiez, whatever you may do. 

duels que soient ces homines, wheover these men may be. 

duelques talens qu'il ait, whatever talents he may have. 

Gluelque grands qu'ils soient, however great they may be. 

Tout puissans qu'ils sent, j however .^M «* «W h >? 

r ^ > { power Jul as they are. 

Remark 1. Whatever, at the end of a sentence is translated 
as if it were, whatever it, or they may be. 

Remark 2. The adjective any is translated exactly like 
whatever in the above Remark, when its place can be supplied 
by the same word. 

Remark 3. All sentences construed with ever so, followed 
by an adjective, must be translated into French as they would 
be, if construed with however. 

Ex. : duelque humble qu'il soit, Be it ever so humble. 

N. B. It will be important for the learner to pay some attention to 
the subjunctive mood before writing the next exercise. This mood will, 
however, present no difficulty thus far, as it is represented in this exer- 
cise by the English words corresponding to it in the conjugations. 



EXERCISE. 






The verbs, Numbers 1, 2, and 3, list, page 143. 

Whoever goes there, pays for his curiosity. We have resolved that 
whoever speaks shall pay a fine. Whomsoever you may accuse, your 
proofs will not be sufficient. Whoever sewed this, did not sew it well. 
Whoever may be the miller who ground your corn, tell him that he has 
not returned the whole of it. Whatever may be your excuse, we re- 
solved that we would not admit it. He said that he would buy your 
house, whatever may be your terms. Whoever he may be I will not 
tremble. Whatever he may propose accept it. Whatever he may 
relate, do not listen to him. However learned they may be, they will 
learn something from that man. However great their protestations of 
friendship may be, I know that they would resolve upon my ruin if they 
should find it their interest. Whatever faults he may be guilty of, I shall 
inform his father of it. Whatever proofs he may bring, he will not be 
listened to. However foolish he may be, they will not cheat him. That 
young lady sews very badly, whatever be her skill in other matters. 

How is whatever translated at the end of a sentence 1 — When is the adjective 
any translated like whatever ? — How is ever so, followed by an adjective, translated 
into French ? 



VfcRBs. 277 

CHAPTER V. 
OF THE VERBS. 

SECTION I. 

OF THE RELATION BETWEEN VERBS AND NOUNS. 

Agreement of the Verb with its Nominative, 

General Rule. A verb must agree with its nominative 
in number and person. 

Rule L Wheu a verb has two or more nominatives which are 
singular, it is put in the plural. 

Ex: Jean et Paul viendront ce soir, 

John and Paul will cjme this evening. 

Remark 1. When the substantives are synonimous, they do 
not require to be joined by the conjunction et, and the verbis 
put in the singular. 

Ex. : Son courage, son intrepidlte £ tonne les plus braves, 
His courage and intrepidity astonish the most brave. 

Remark 2. In elevated style the verb may, by ellipsis, agree 
with the last substantive only. 

Ex. : Une parole, un sourire, un seul regard suffit, 
A word, a smile, a single look suffices. 

N. B. The reason of these two exceptions is, that the nominatives of 
the verb are not considered collectively, the verb relating to each of them 
separately. 

Remark 3. Sometimes when there is a principal agent of an 
action, which agent is expressed by a pronoun, that agent be- 
comes the nominative of the verb, which agrees with it in the 
singular number. The pronoun must then be repeated after 
the verb, and connected with the other nominatives by a con- 
unction. 

Ex : Elle vint, elle et ses enfans, 
She came with her children. 

Rule 2. When a verb relates to several nominatives of dif- 
ferent persons, it is put in the plural and agrees with the person 
who has the priority. (Remember the Rules on the pronouns 
page 224. 

N. B. The first person has the priority over the second, and the 
second over the third. 



How does the verb agree with its nominutive 1— How when a verb has two 
nominatives singular ? — When is the verb used in the singular, although relating 
to two singular nouns ?— Is there no other instance ?— Hov*- the phrase con- 
strued when the nominatives are of different persons ? 

24 



278 VERBS* 

Rule 3. When the two nominatives are connected by the 
conjunction ou, or ; the verb must agree with the second. 

Remark. Either, followed by or is most generally omitted 
in French. 

Ex. . Le roi ou son ministre le recompensera, 

Either the king or his minister will reward him. 

Remark. Should the nominatives of the verb be of different 
persons, the verb ought to be put in the plural, although the 
two words be separated by ou, and agree with the person who 
has the priority. 

Ex. : C'est toi ou moi qui avons fait cela, 
II is thou or I loho have done thai. 

^Rule 4. Should the two substantives be joined by any of 
the co .junctions de mime que, aussi bien que, ainsi que, as 
well as, comme, like ; non plus que, no more than ; avec, with ; 
■plutdt que, rather than ; and others similar to these, the verb 
should agree with the first only, the second being incidental. 

Ex. : L'elephant comme le castor, aime la society de ses semblables, 
The elephant, as ivell as the beaver, likes the society of his species. 

Rule 5. Wlien a verb has two nominatives in the singular 
number, connected by the conjunction ni, repeated before each, 
it ought to be observed whether the action expressed by the 
verb can or cannot be performed by the two substantives si- 
multaneously. If one of the two be excluded, the verb and 
adjective, or participle, will be used in the singular ; but if the 
two words perform the action together, the plural must be used» 

N. B. The verb that follows ni must be preceded by the negative 
ne. 

Ex. : Ni le comte ni le due ne sera ambassadeur, 

Neither the earl nor the duke will be ambassador. 
Ni le vent ni la maree ne Pont retenu, 
Neither the wind nor the tide prevented him. 

Remark. But should the words connected by ni be pro- 
nouns of different persons, the verb should be put in the plural, 
and agree with the person who has the priority. 

Ex. : N\ lui ni moi ne sommes coupables, 
Neither he nor I am guilty. 

How is the phrase construed when the nominatives are joined by the con- 
junction ou 1— What are the other instances in which a verb is used in the sin- 
gular, although preceded by several nouns or pronouns to which it relates?— 
"What is the observation concerning the agreement of the verb with two nomina- 
tives separated by the conjunction ni '-How is tho>phrase construed when the 
nominatives separated by ou or ni are of different persons ? 



VERBS. 

Rule 6. After un or une, followed by another substantive, 
connected with it by the preposition de, the verb may be either 
in the singular or in the plural, according to the sense of the 
sentence. 

Ex : C'est un de mes enfans qui a dine" avec vous, 
It is one of my children who has dined with you. 
C'est un des enfans qui ont dine avec vous, 
It is one of the children who have dined with you. 

EXERCISE. 

The verbs Nos. 4, 5, and 6, of the list, page 143. 

My father and thy uncle will take tea with us to night. Either he 
or his servant has put my letter into the post-office. His rage and 
anger were visible, while his father was beating him. A re giment, a 
batailion, a company would beat the enemy. Either she or her sister 
beats her servants. It is general S. or Marshall T. who beat the army 
of Prince L. It is thou or he who has eaten the pies. Either you or I 
shall leave this place. Either the general or his aid-de-camp will be 
charged with that mission. Strength of soul, like that of body, is the 
fruit of temperance. Envy, as well as all the other passions, is little 
compatible with happiness. That unfortunate father, with his incon- 
solable daughter, was weeping for his wife at- that moment. The king 1 ,, 
Tather than the ministers, is to be blamed. Neither my father nor my 
uncle puts his money in that bank. Neither the one nor the other has 
taken your key. Neither love nor hatred descends with us into the 
grave. Neither prayers nor tears have prevailed. Neither he nor I 
will put on a black coat. Neither you nor they will take his part. He 
is one of the men who have illustrated our age. It is one of the soldiers 
of my company who entered first. 

OF COLLECTIVE NOUNS, OR NOUNS OF MULTITUDE. 

Collective nouns are those which, under a singular form 
have a plural signification. 

They are of two kinds. 

Those which express a number of individuals forming a li- 
mited whole : as, army, nation, family, <£c., and those which 
express a certain number of the individuals specified in a follow- 
ing substantive ; as, a part of, a number of a troop of &c. 

The former are called general, the latter partitive. 
^ Remark 1. Adverbs of quantity when followed by substan- 
! tives are classed among collectives partitive. 

Remark 2. There is this difference between the collectives 
i general and collectives-partitive, that the former are always 
determined by an article or an adjective, which points out their 



When is the verb singular, and when is it plural, after un or une followed by 
de and a noun ?— Wha.t are collective nouns 1— How many sorts of collective 
nouns are there ? 



280 VERBS. 

speciality ; such as, the, my, thy, &c, u^id this, that, &c, while 
the latter are only preceded by the indefinite article a or an; 
except, La plupart, the greatest part. 

Yet when un or une stands for the numeral adjective one, 
the noun that follows it is a collective general. 

OF THE COLLECTIVE-GENERAL, NOMINATIVE TO THE VERB. 

Rule. In English a noun of multitude or collective-general 
is often followed by a verb in the plural, although the word be 
in the singular number. In French the verb agrees in number 
with the noun and not with its signification. Thus the verb, 
after a collective-general used in the singular number, will be 
put in the singular. 

Ex. : Le conseil etait divisg, 
The counsel were divided, 

OP THE COLLECTIVE-PARTITIVE, NOMINATIVE TO THE VERB. 

Rule. Should the collective be partitive, the verb would 
not agree with the word which determines the number, but 
with the substantive following. 

Ex. : La plupart des.hommes sont ainsi, 
The greatest part of men are so. 
Beaucoup d'enf.ms jouent au lieud'dtudier, 
Many children play instead of studying,. 

Remark. The same word, according to the word by which, 
it is determined, may be either a collective-general or a collec- 
tive partitive.— (See the above Remark 2.) 

Ex. : Une troupe de voleurs ont pille le chateau, 
A troop of robbers have plundered the castle. 
La troupe de voleurs a disparu, 
The troop of robbers has disappeared., 

EXERCISE. 

The verbs,?, 8, and 9, of the list, page 143. 

The captain cannot embark your goods tOrday j his crew are fight* 
ing. Do you think that the court, breaking their promises, will con«< 
demn that man, instead of following the course which they took in the 
last suit? Who will live, will be free ; and who dies, is already so: 
such was the motto of the army of Poles who were trying to recover- 
their liberties. I always follow the new troop of musicians who play- 
serenades under the windows of the belles of our city. A number of 
men live as if they were immortal. How many persons have lived in 




What is a collective-general ?— What is a collective-partitive ?•— How doest 
the verb agree with a collective-general? — How with st collective-partitive \ 



VERBS. 281 

the expectation of being happy one day ! A number of kings have 
broken the chain which united them to their people. He was tipsy, 
and a crowd of children followed him. The army of the infidels was- 
completely defeated. 

OF THE PLACE OF THE NOMINATIVE. 

If the nominative of a verb be a personal pronoun, the learner may 
know how to place it, by applying the rules given, page 87. 

Rule. If the nominative be a noun, it should be placed be- 
fore the verb, except in the following instances : — 

It is a general principle in every language, that when seve- 
ral propositions are joined to form a sentence, the longest is 
always put last. The same is practised with the different mem- 
bers of a phrase. Thus, when a verb is not followed by an ob- 
jective, and the nominative is composed of several words, it is 
more elegant to put the nominative after the verb, either affir-- 
mative or negative. 

Ex. : Je ferai ce qu'a dit le commis de votre perc, 
I will do what your father 's clerk has directed. 

In some places this order is indispensable. 
1st. When the verb is a monosyllable. 

Ex. : Pouvez-vous me dire ou est mon dictionnaireFrancais? 
Can yon ttll me where my French dictionary is ? 

2d. When the phrase begins with an adverb of place, or any 
word expressing manner or conclusion, and after the adverbs 
<peut-etre, perhaps ; and a peine, scarcely. 

Ex. : Ici repose la bonne Myrtale, Here lies the good Myrtale. 

Ainsi se terminacette affaire, Thus ended that affair, 

3d. In incidental sentences which express that we are quoting 
somebody's words. 

Ex. : Je meurs innocent, a dit Louis XVI. 
I die innocent, said Louis XVI, 

4th. When the subjunctive is used to express a wish. 

Ex. : Puissent tous les peuples devenir librcs ! 
May all people become free ! 

5th. When the substantive is both the nominative of a verb 
in the infinitive, and the objective of a preceding verb. 
Ex. : J'ai entendu chanter votre scsur, / heard your sister sing. 

Where is the place of a substantive nominative to a verb ?— What are the in- 
stances in which the nominative can be placed after l-r-Is there not another uv 
stance ? 

24* 



282 VERBS. 

Remark. In interrogative sentences, several tilings are to 
be observed. 

1st. The nominative is placed after the verb when the ob- 
jective of the verb is an interrogative pronoun placed at the 
head of the sentence. 

Ex. ; Clue dit votre ami ? What does your friend say ? 

A quoi travaille votre soeur ? 
At iv hat does your sister employ herself 7 

2d. When the phrase commences with one of those adverbs 
which are used to ask questions, and the verb has no objective. 

Ex. : Gu demeure le docteur ? Where does the doctor live? 

Combien demande cet hnmme ? What dots that man ask ? 
Gluand viendra votre soeur ? Whenwillyour sister come ? 

Remark. Should the verb, in any sentence similar to the 
above examples, have an objective, the interrogation should be 
made by means of est-ce que. 

Ex. : "When will that man finish his work ? 

Q,uand est-ce que cet homme finira son cuvrage ? 

N. B. In any of the above instances, the same esl-ce que might be 
used with advantage. 

Rule. In all phrases wh'ch do not fall under any of the 
preceding remarks, when an interrogation is made, and the 
nominative of the verb' is a substantive, that substantive is to 
be placed at the head of the sentence in French, adding a pro- 
noun for the interrogation, immediately after the verb. 

Ex.: Le r.oL arrivera-t-il demain? 
Wilhthe king arrive to-morrow ? 

Remark. Should the verb be interrogative and negative^ 
the same rules should be observed. Such sf ntences, however, 
are generally expressed by placing the nominative first, and 
using a pronoun after the verb, or by introducing est-ce-que? 
and using the verb in the negative. 

Ex. : L*a servante> n'a-t-el!e pas ouvert la porte ? 
Has not the servant opened the door ? 
Est-ce que la servante n'a pas ferine la fenetre? 
Has 7iot the servant shut the ivindow ? 
Gtu'esi-ce que voire frere n'a pas entrepris ? 
What lias your brother not undertaken ? 



What is to be observed in interrogative sentences as for the place of the no- 
minative? — When in est-ce que to be used ? — How is an interrogative sentence 
generally construed when its nominative is a substantive ?— How axe interna 
negative sentences generally construed in the same instances ?. 



VERBS, 283 

EXERCISE. 

; The verbs, Numbers 10, 11, and 12, page 143. 

I will do what my father, whose memory I cherish, has done, and I 
shall not blush. That man died as philosophers die. The celebrated 
and unfortunate Lavoisier discovered what the greatest philosophers 
had not found out. After the French, came the Hollanders ; at their 
head was the valiant Roberts. Tell me where my pens are. I go 
where kings do not go. Thus did the poor man whose history I was 
relating to you. Perhaps he will prudently keep that circumstance se- 
cret. Talkative persons often say what prudent people keep secret. 
We shall not do any thing to-day, replied the lawyer, and may your 
client be satisfied with this delay ! I saw those ladies come, but I did 
not hear them speak of you. Does that answer please you ? Has not 
that young lady pleased you from the first moment? What is the dog 
eating? Where are these children going? When will their master 
come? Will the business be better next winter? Did your sister 
write to her friends in Salem ? Was that child punished when he came 
home ? Has not your daughter been sick ? 

OP THE PLACE OF THE OBJECTIVE. 

The rule of the personal pronouns when they are objective 
to the verbs, must be remembered. — (See page 88.) 

Rule. When a substantive is used as the objective of a 
verb, it must be placed after the verb. 

This rule applies to all the pronouns except the personal, as was ex- 
plained before, and the relative which, both in French and English, 
come before the verb. 

Exception. In an interrogative sentence, the objective is 
placed before the verb, when this objective is joined to an in- 
i terrogative pronoun, or to an interrogative adverb of quantity. 
This rule is the same both in English and in French. 

Ex. : duel objet voyez-vous ? What object do you see ? 

Combien d'enfans a-t-il? How many children has he ? 

la any other instance, the substantive or pronoun (except 

J the personal and relative) must be put after the verb ; but if, 

for convenience, it be placed at the head of the sentence, its 

sense must be repeated by a personal pronoun used with the 

verb. 

Ex. : Je savais cela, That I knew. 

Ce livre, je I'ai In, That book I have read. 

Je connais Penfant que vous instruisez, 
I know the child whom you instruct. 

Where must a noun, which is the objective to a verb, be placed?— When can 
that objective precede the verb?— What is to be done when, for convenience? 
the objective is placed at the beginning of the sentence? 



284 VERBS. 

Rule. A noun may be governed at once by two active 
verbs, either as an objective direct or indirect. 

Ex. : Ce general attaqua et prit la ville, 

That general attacked and took the city. 

II a donne ou vendu sa m outre a mon frere, 

He has given or sold his ivatch to my brother. 

Remark. Sometimes the noun is placed after the first verb ? 
and represented by a pronoun with the second. 

Ex. : You will see and admire that man, 

Vous verrez cet komme et vons V admirer ez. 

N. B. In French, as well as in English, a substantive cannot 
relate to two verbs, if they are not followed by the same pre- 
position. 

EXERCISE. 

' The verbs 13, 14, and 15, of the list, page 143. 

Do you know my brother ? Yes, I do know him. How much mo- 
ney can you give me ? I cannot give you any. That I knew. That 
news I heard yesterday. Those men I once saw in Boston. Take 
this one ; the other I will keep for myself. He struck and broke the 
glass at the same moment. Those cows we will milk to-morrow. 
Have you read the article which appeared yesterday ? That article 
you yourself wrote. Has the comet appeared ? That you know as 
well as I. 

SECTION II. 

OF THE USE OF THE TENSES OF THE FRENCH VERBS. 

N. B. The learner should remember the observation, page 101. 

OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 

The infinitive is that mood which simply expresses the 
meaning of the verb, without either number or persons. 

Rule 1. A verb which comes after ano'her is put in the pre- 
sent of the infinitive, unless the first verb be an auxiliary. 

Ex. : Je veux vous parler, / wish to speak to you. 

Remark 1. The pupil must be careful to distinguish between 
the verb in the infinitive and the past participle. 

Ex.: Je l'ai trouvee ouverte, I found it opened. 

N. B. In some instances the English past participle is translated inta 
French by the present of the infinitive, as will be seen hereafter. 

Can two verbs have the same objective ?— When?— How is the phrase con- 
strued when the objective is used with the first verb?— What is the infinitive 
mood ?— When is a French verb used in the infinitive ?— Is there another instance! 



VERBS. 285 

Rule 2. The present of the infinitive, preceded by the verb 
itre, with which it is connected by the preposition a, stands 
for the English compound of the infinitive. 

Ex. : Cci komme est a plaindre, That man is to be pitied. 

N. B. This subject will be mentioned again in the chapter 
of prepositions. 

Rule 3. For perspicuity's sake, when two verbs, usedin 
the same tense, and coming after one another, have the same 
nominative, the second verb is put in the present of the infini- 
tive. 

Ex. : I thought I saw him, Je crus le voir. 

Rule 4. Prepositions, in French, govern the present of the 
infinitive, except en, in 3 which is followed by the participle 
present, then corresponding to the Latin gerund. 

Ex. : Sans aller, without going. En allant, while going. 

The use of some prepositions will be explained with that part of 
speech. 

Rule 5. The preposition in, before a present participle, is 
translated into French by d, and the following verb used in. 
the present of the infinitive. 

But when in can be supplied by the preposition by. it is 
translated according to the following rule. 

Ex. : U pajsse son terns a jouer, He spends his time in playing. 

Vous p.enezpiaish a la Yoh take pleasure in vexing 

tounnenter, him. 

Rule 6. The English prepositions by ard on, and the ad- 
verbs ichile, when, before a present participle, are translated 
into French by the preposition 'en, with the participle present., 
Ex. : Je i'.ii appris en etudiant jour et nuit, 
1 learned it by studying day and night. 
J'y pensais en allant au nngasin, 
I thought of it while going to the store. 

Remark. While is sometimes translated by tout en. 

Ex. : Tout en filant votre lin, W/iile spinning your flax. 

Rule 7. The English present participle is always translated 
into French by the present of the infinitive, when both the 
agent performing the action expressed by the present partici- 
ple, and the same present participle, are the objectives of a verb 
that precedes. 

Ex. : Je l'ai vu peindre, J saw him painting. 

i saw him, and I saw his act' 1 on &f vainting. 

What, mood do French prepositions govern?— What is the exception?— How 
is in before a present participle translated into French ?— What does the French 
preposition en stand for?— When is the present participle also translated by the 
infinitive besides this instance 1 



'286 



VERBS. 



But the present participle is used in French when its agent 
only falls under the government of that verb. 

Ex. : I met him walking, Je Vai rencontre se promenant. 

The phrase might also be construed with the relative pronoun qui, 
and the verb in the tense required by the sense of the phrase ; as, je Vai 
rencontre qui se promenait. 

Rule 8. There are elliptical constructions in which an inter- 
rogative adverb is followed by an infinitive. The phrase can 
be supplied as follows : 

Ex. : Comment concilier tout cela ? 

How can we conciliate all that ? 

It is extremely important to observe, in these phrases, the 
difference produced by en before the present participles. For, 
according to the above rules, Je Vai trouve cherchant des 
livres, means, / met him looking for books ; while en cherch- 
ant, signifies, while looking. 

Rule. 9. An English present participle, which is the object 
of a preceding verb, is translated into French by the present of 
the infinitive, preceded by the preposition de. 

Ex. : I have done reading, J'aijini de lire, 

fiuLE 16. Many English present participles are used like 
nouns, and are translated into French by substantives. 

Ex. : I do not like hunting, Je n'aime pas la chasse. 

Rule 11. The French present participles cannot he pre- 
ceded by possessive adjectives. English phrases of this con- 
struction, cannot therefore be literally translated into French. 
They must be previously construed in such a manner that the 
possessive adjective may be represented by a personal pronoun, 
and the present participle by a verb. 

Ex.: The reason of my acting so. • 
La raison pourquoifagis ainsL 
The reason why I act so. 

N. B. In many instances the subjunctive mood is used, as will be 
hereafter mentioned. 

Rule 12. A present participle cannot in French enter into 
the composition of a noun. With English words of such 

When is the present participle to be preferred ?— What other construction is 
used ? — When does the French infinitive which represents an English present 
participle, require to be preceded by de?— When is an English present participle 
translated into French by a noun?— How can you translate into French a pre- 
sent participle preceded by a possessive adjective ?— How is a present partici- 
ple translated into French when it enters into the composition of a word \ 



VEEBS. 287 

formation the present participle is translated into French by 
a noun or a verb preceded by the preposition a. 



Ex. : A dancing-master, < 



Un maitre de danse. 
Un maitre ci danser. 



N. B. Before proceeding with this subject, it will be proper to write an ex- 
•ercise upon what precedes. 

EXERCISE, 

The verbs 16, 17, 18, page 143. 

1 was going to tell you where I was born and how I came here, 
when I found you informed of every thing. We saw her dead, and 
we thought we. saw an angel asleep. A man was saying to me one 
day, that he could see the leaves grow. He imagined he had lost his 
pocket-book, and he found it in his pocket while running home. You 
cannot prevent my flocks from grazing in this place. I can see the 
soldiers without going out, I composed that song while walking, and 
I spent two hours in correcting it. In communicating my ideas to you, 
I do not wish to control yours. Do you find any difficulty in express- 
ing your phrases in French? That poor little girl took a great deal of 
pains in writing her exercise, and yet it is full of mistakes. Is she not 
negligent in performing her duties ? You can learn that by asking your 
brother. He is an extraordinary man for making money. I caught 
him using my books. We commenced learning French on the first of 
October. I hate disputing. These trees grow very well ; they will 
soon commence bearing fruit, He was born in eighteen hundred and 
six, and was already an excellent writing-master in eighteen hundred 
and twenty-one. I do not like your boasting so mu.ch of your talents. 

Rule 1. The English past participle is translated into 
French by the present of the infinitive, when it expresses, not 
a state, but an action, which took place at a time determined 
by a verb which precedes, and the objective of which is, in 
English, the sufferer of the action. 

Ex. : Je vis tuer cet homme, ' I saw that man killed. 

The phrase is construed as if it were, I saw somebody kill- 
■ ing that man, the word somebody being understood. 

Remark. It is, however, important to remark, that when 
the English past participle qualifies a pronoun, that pronoun 
is not placed in the French sentence before the infinitive, but 
I is used as the objective of the verb that precedes. 

Ex. : Je vous ai vu battre, I have seen you flogged. 

Rule 2. Should the English past participle express an ac- 
tion which is past respecting the other verb, it must be trans- 
lated by the same tense in French. 

When is a past participle translated into French by an infinitive J— When by 
a past participle 1— How is a pronoun used in those sentences where a past 
( participle is expressed in French by an infinitive ? 



2§8 VERBS. 

Ex. : Je les vis morts. / saio them dead. 

JIemark. It might be objected that, since both the present 
and past participles are translated into French, by the present 
of the infinitive, there is no difference between an action per- 
formed and an action suffered. But if any doubt should arise 
from using the present of the infinitive, either as an active or 
a passive verb, this infinitive must be accompanied by such 
words as to prevent any doubt. Moreover when the verb is 
such that the past participle and the present of the infinitive 
have the same pronunciation, although spelt differently, the 
Words used in expressing the idea, and accompanying this 
verb, must be such as to explain whether the action was past 
or present in its relation to the other verb. In general, the 
rest of the phrase, the inflexion of the voice, or what precedes, 
prevents any equivocation. 

N. B. There is a difficulty connected with this subject which French 
grammarians have tried to explain b)r giving, as usual, each a different 
opinion. Had they always. endeavoured to compare the French with 
other languages, they would not, have fallen into so many errors. 

The point is this ; the verbs voir, to see; entendre, cu'lr, to hear; 
laisser, to let; /aire, to make, to cause; are used in French, as it were, 
like auxiliaries to other verbs, used in the infinitive. The sense of the 
two verbs is blended so, that they both take the sense of an active 
verb, and have but one direct objective for both. They may also have 
an indirect objective governed by the preposition a. The direct ob- 
jective, when not accompanied by an indirect objective, may either be 
a person or a thing, but when both the direct and indirect objective 
come together, the person is always the indirect objective. 

Thus the French say, 

J'ai entendu chanter votre frere, 
J heard your brother sing. 
J'ai entendu chanter cette chanson, 
/ heard that song swig. 

The two verbs thus used cannot be separated, except when the first 
is in the imperative, and its objective is a pronoun. 

Laissez-moi mourir, Let me die. 

The above rule is so strictly observed, that, except in the case of the 
imperative, the objective when a pronoun is placed before the first 
verb. Thus, speaking of trees, you must say," 

Je les vis planter, / saw them planted. 

But when both the person and the thing come with the same verb, 
the person must be governed by the preposition a, or, if it is a personal 



How can you distinguish, then, whether the noun or pronoun to which this 
infinitive relate*, be the agent or the sufferer? — When two nouns or pronouns, 
one standing- for a person, the other for a thing, come in the same sentence, 
which is the direct, and which the indirect objective ? 



verbs. 289 

pronoun, this pronoun must be expressed by lui or lew, which are in- 
direct objectives. 

Ex. : J'ai entendu chanter cette chanson a votre frere, 
J heard that song sung by your brother; or, 
I heard your brother sing that song. 
Je la lui ai entendu chanter, 
J heard it sung by him ; or, 
I heard him sing it. 

Without, therefore, giving here the numerous examples that gram- 
marians have borrowed from authors, and which are contradictory to 
each other, it will be better to give at once the following rule. 

Rule. When the verbs voir, ou'ir, entendre, laisser, and 
/aire, are, according to any of the above rules, followed by an 
infinitive, their sense becomes entirely blended with that of 
the infinitive, and both verbs being considered as an active 
verb, have but one objective, whether that objective be a per- 
son or a thing. But when both the person and the thing are 
found in the same sentence, the person is the objective indi- 
rect, as illustrated by the above examples. 

Remark. Some grammarians think that the verbs voir, ou'ir, and 
entendre, to which some even add laisser, should be always considered 
as separate from the following infinitive. They support their argu- 
ments by examples taken from the best authors, such as this : 

Je Pai vu faire cela, I have seen him do that. 

But, observe, that, / have seen that man do that, must be translated 
by J^ai vu faire cela it cet homme ; and, I have seen him do it, by Je le lui 
ai vu faire. Then, since him is an indirect objective in this latter 
phrase, why should it be direct in the former ? How can this be ex- 
plained, when in both phrases the verbs have a direct objective, which 
is that ? 

It is easy to perceive, that any one who wishes to dive into this sub- 
ject, will not be able to see the bottom of it, until some bold genius 
puts an end to his perplexities. 

In the mean while, the rule given above may as well be followed, 
and if any difficulty occur, the most prudent way will be to use a dif- 
ferent construction. 

In order, however, to be useful to the learner, it will be mentioned 
here, that these grammarians use the personal pronoun, as a direct ob- 
jective to the first verb, when the person represented by that pronoun 
is the agent of the action expressed by the infinitive, and they use the 
pronoun as an indirect objective, when this person is the sufferer. 

Ex. : Je l'ai vu donner cent francs, 

I have seen him give a hundred francs. 

Try to explain the difficulty treated of in the above page, in relation to this 

subject. 

25 



290 VERBS. 

Je lui ai vu dormer cent francs, 

I have seen a hundred francs given to him, 

Les ofTres que je les vis faire, 
The offers which I saw them make, 
Les offres que je leur vis faire, 
The offers which I saw made to them, 

N. B. Some rules will be given in the chapter of participles, on the 
agreement of the past participles of the same verbs. 

Remark. Phrases in which several personal pronouns, 
meeting together, would make the sense difficult to under- 
stand, should be translated by the aid of the relative pronoun. 

Ex. : I heard him say to her, 

Je Vai entendu qui lui disait. 

EXERCISE. 

The derivatives of the verbs 1, 2, and 3, page 143. 

The seams of this coat are not very neat, but I will explain to you the 
reason of it. When I came here I saw it ripped ; it was on the table* 
Then the workman came and took it, and sewed it again. Did you see 
it sewed again? Undoubtedly, Sir, since I tell you that the workman 
took it, I saw him sew it again. I heard the miller say that he would 
not grind that corn again for a good deal. I answered him that you would 
make him grind it again. That poor fellow was very sick, and they 
let him die for want of assistance. Do not let them come in, and if they 
are in, make them go out. Who broke these glasses ? yourself. Did 
you see them broken ? No, Sir. I saw them afterwards, but you told 
me that it was you who had shut the window. He told me that he had 
heard those men condemned, while they had been absolved by the 
court. If you let those shells remain longer in that acid, you will find 
them dissolved. Do you believe that vinegar would dissolve them ? 
Yes. I have heard said thai vinegar dissolves shells. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
The indicative is that mood which simply indicates or de- 
clares a thing. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Rule 1. The present of the indicative is used as shown 
page 102, and in the same circumstances as in English. 

Rule 2. It is also generally used instead of the preterit, in 
oral ions or set discourses, and in poetry, in order to represent 
a past action or event, as present to the minds of the hearers 
or readers. 

Rule 3. In English, the verb is often put or understood in 
the future, after the conjunction if, si ; in French, the verb is 

What is the indicative mood ?— Mention all the instances in which the prer , 
sent tense is to be used? 



VERBS. 291 

put in the present of the indicative, when in the future in Eng- 
lish. # 

Ex. : S'il vous dit cela, If he will tell you so. 

Rule 4. After adverbs of time, the English verb is some- 
times put in the present of the indicative. In French that verb 
is put in the future, if the action is not yet past, as will be seen 
when treating of that tense ; but it is put in the present of the 
indicative, if the phrase expresses an action which frequently 
takes place, or which is present. 

Ex.: Pourquoi ne le punissez-vous pas quand il fait cela ? 
Why do you not punish him when he does so ? 

Rule 5. The present of the indicative is also sometimes 
used to mark a future not distant. 
Ex. : Vous sav ez que je vais en France, 
You know that I am going to France. 

EXERCISE. 

The derivatives- of verbs, 4, 5, and 6, list, page 143. 

I am learning my lesson, and you will prevent me from knowing.it 
well, by your talking. Philosophers are continually fighting with ig- 
norance and superstition. Where are you going? I am going home. 
What do you say? I say nothing. Why do you not say anything? 
What does she eat ? She eats nothing. Yes, she does eat something. 
Tell him, if he come, that I will give him three hundred dollars for his 
goods. We always make much noise when our cousins come. We 
take our tea when every body is here. Why will you not undertake 
that business when every thing promises the most complete success ? 
You promise often, but you seldom keep your word. If you will allow 
me that, I will be very much obliged to you. 

OF THE IMPERFECT, AND PRETERITS DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE. 

Learners generally find great difficulty in translating into 
French the English imperfect, which is represented in French, 
according to circumstances, by any of the above three tenses. 

A short explanation relating to the use of the above tenses was given 
page 94, with the verb avoir, but this subject must be now treated of more 
completely than the advancement of the learner would have warranted 
before. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

The imperfect is used to express an action that was going on 
when another action took place, and determines nothing with 
regard to the commencement, duration, or end of the action. 

It does not express any thing that commenced or finished at 
the time to which it refers, but simply determines that the thing 
was continuing when something that follows or precedes took 

What is the imperfect tense used for T— Mention all the instances in whic& 
this tense is to bs used } 



292 VERBS. 

place. It, therefore, always leaves the mind in suspense, and 
is, for this reason, called imperfect. 

The imperfect can be used for any thing that was going on 
to-day or any other time. 

Ex. : Je dinais quand vous entrates, or quand vous etes entre. 
/ ivas dining when you came in. 

Remark. It must be observed that the English sentence is, 
in such circumstances, generally expressed by the preterit of 
the verb to be, followed by a present participle, as in the above 
example, / was dining or we were dining. We may, there- 
fore, take as a rule that, any action expressed in English by the 
participle present, preceded by was or were, must be translated 
into French by the imperfect. 

The imperfect is also used to express an action which fre- 
quently took place at a time either determined or not by the 
sense of the sentence. The English phrase, in a similar in- 
stance, is, or may be, construed with used to, 

Ex. : Je lisais beaucoup autrefois, 

Formerly I used to read a great deal. 

There are verbs which imply continuance, or in other words, 
that express a state of things that may continue for a long pe- 
riod ; as the verbs to be, to live, to respect, to rain, to love, &c, 
some of which may also be construed in English with used Iv; 
When such verbs are used in the past tenses, without any refer- 
ence to the commencement, duration, or end of the action which 
they express, they must be translated by the imperfect tense. 

Ex.: Cesar etait un grand homme, Vseshr was a great man. 

Je ne savais pis cela, J did not know that. 

Cet homme demeurait ici, That man used tolive here. 

I do not mean that Caesar was a great man, once in his life, 
but I intend to convey the idea that his character was that of 
a great man ; that he was continually a great man. 

In the second sentence, I do not say that I did not know that, 
only in one circumstance, but I mean that I was all the time 
ignorant of it. 

Rule. In English the verb is often put or understood in the 
subjunctive after the conjunction if, si. In French, that verb 
is put in the im.perfect, of the indicative, when in the subjunc- 
tive, in English; it agrees with its nominative. 

Ex. : Si j'etais malade, If I should be sick. 

N. B. A comparison will be made below between the imperfect and 
the other past tenses. 

PRETERIT DEFINITE. 

The preterit definite expresses an action which took place 
When ought the preterit definite be used ? 



VERBS. 293 

but once, commenced at the time to which it refers, and was 
entirely completed. That action may be of short or long dura- 
tion, but in both cases, it is fully expressed, from beginning to 
end, by this tense. 

Remark. It must be observed that the preterit definite is 
only used when the time at which the action took place has en- 
tirely elapsed. Thus we cannot use it to express what happened 
to-day, but we can only employ it for what happened yesterday, 
or at any other previous time. 

From the above principle, this tense cannot be accompanied 
by the words, this week, this month, this year, this century, $a, 
as that time is not entirely completed. 

Remark. Several preterits coming after each other, express 
actions that took place in succession ; the pluperfect must be 
used if the second expresses an action anterior to the first. 

Ex. : Je vcus marquai parce que tous aviez parle, 

/ marked you because you had spoken or you spoke. 

PRETERIT INDEFINITE, OR COMPOUND TENSE OF THE PRESENT. 

The preterit indefinite, or compound tense of the present^ 
expresses an action entirely completed, but at a time of which 
there yet remains some part not elapsed. It is used, therefore, 
instead of the preterit indefinite for actions which took place 
to-day, or when the words this week, this month, &c, are in 
the sentence. 

Ex. : J'ai rencontre votre pere ce matin, 
I met your father this morning. 

The preterit indefinite is also used in speaking of any thing, 
action, or event, perfected at any time, the effects of which are 
still existing, or thought to be existing, or whose consequences 
extend to the present time. For instance, I would put the verb 
in the preterit indefinite, if I wished to inform a person of some 
news ; if I inquire with regard to any occurrence : or if i am 
on the spot where the event or action spoken of, took place ; the 
principal use of this tense being to express that the effect, con- 
sequence, or interest of a past event is still existing. 

Ex. : LesRusses ont gagne une grandebataille, 
The Russians have gained a great battle. 
Avez-vous conclu votre marche* ? 
Did you conclude your bargain ? 
Henri quatre a couche dans cette chambre, 
Henry the fourth has slept in this room. 
Les Romains ont bati les murailles que vous voyez, 
The Romans have built the walls that you see. 

When is the preterit indefinite used? — What tense do you use when the ac- 
tion was going on ?— Which when the action took place?— Which when it took 
place to-day ?=— Which when the words, this week, this month, &c, are in the sea 
tence ? 

25* 



294 VERBS. 

Remark. The preterit indefinite or compound tense must 
be used when the verb is accompanied by the adverbs always, 
never , often, and others, which extend the action to the present 
time. 

Ex. : Pai toujours pens£, I always thought. 

1ST. B. The scholar must not mind whether the question is asked, or 
the answer is given with the auxiliary verb to do, instead of to have. 

Rule. After adverbs of time, the English verb is some- 
times put in the preterit indefinite ; in French, that verb is put 
in the future anterior when the action is not yet past, as will 
be mentioned when speaking of that tense ; but it is put in the 
preterit indefinite, if it conveys the idea of an habitual action, 
which, in English, is expressed by the corresponding tense. 

Ex : Gluand il a compose des vers, il me les lit, 

When he has composed verses, he reads them to me. 



COMPARISON BETWEEN THE IMPERFECT, PRETERIT DEFINITE, 
AND PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 

' The imperfect must be used, 

1. For an action expressed by the preterit of the verb to be f 
either was or were, and a participle present ; 

2. For an action expressed by the preterit used, followed by 
an infinitive. 

3. For any action which was frequently repeated or conti- 
nued for a certain time, in which case, used to, if not express- 
ed, can be understood. 

4. For any action which was going on when another took 
place, either to-day or at any previous time. 

The preterit definite, or simple tense, must be used, 
For an action which took place but once, and was entirely 
completed at a time of which nothing remains to elapse. 

The preterit indefinite, or compound tense, must be used, 

1. When the action took place at a time which is not yet 
entirely passed, and particularly to-day; 

2. When the consequence, effect, or interest of an action ex- 
tends to the present time. 

Remark 1. Should any difficulty occur, two questions will 
remove it, viz. 

Was the action going on? 
Bid the action take place ? 



What is the difference between the imperfect and preterit definite ?— What is 
the difference between the preterit definite and the preterit indefinite ?— What 
is the rule giyen to distinguish between the imperfect and the preterits 1 — 



VERBS. 295 

The affirmative answer to these questions will indicate, in 
the former case, the use of the imperfect ) and in the latter, 
the use of one of the preterits ; definite, if all is perfected; 
indefinite, if the effects are still existing. 

Thus we must say, 

Les Russes ont gagnc une grande bataille. 
The Russians have gained a great battle ; 
La riviere a de'oorde, 
The river has overjloivn its banks; 

if these events are of recent occurrence and of present interest. 

But, 

Les Russes gagnerent, &c. 
La riviere deborda ; 

if some subsequent cause has changed the effect resulting from 
these events. 

Therefore, in history, narrations, novels, &c, the preterit 
definite (formerly called historical perfect) ought to be used ; 

And in conversation, news, questions, trade, and business, 
relating to events or actions of an actual interest, the preterit 
indefinite must be used. 

Remark 2. Since the imperfect determines nothing with 
regard to the beginning, duration, or end of the action, this 
tense cannot be used if the verb expressing an action that took, 
place once, is accompanied by an adverb of time, or any other 
expression determining any of these three points. Thus I 
must say, II j)lut pendant deux heures, it rained for two 
hours ; llvecut long tems, he lived a long time ; le Cardinal 
Richelieu fut toute sa vie craint et hat far les grands', quHl 
avait humilies, Cardinal Richelieu was all his life feared and 
hated by the great whom he had humbled ; // restajusqu'a 
mon retour, he remained until my return. 11 pleuvait, ilvi- 
vait 9 il etait,il re^tait, would be very improper in such a case, 
yet I would say, il a plu, il a vecu, it a ete, il a reste, if I wish 
to establish a kind of relation between those events and the 
present time. 

Remark. Do not forget that the imperfect tense is intend- 
ed to convey the idea of an action preceded by used to, in 
English. This tense should be used, therefore, to express the 
action spoken of, whether its length, beginning, or end, be de- 
termined or not, if it is intended to convey an idea of repe- 
tition. 

Ex. : II restait jusqu'a mon retour, 

He used to remain until my return. 

Which tense is to be used when the beginning, end, or duration of the action 
is marked in the sentence? 



296 VERBS. 

Remark 3. The imperfect is often used in narrations to ex- 
press the state of things at a certain period of a longer action ; 
and announces, by its signification, that something which hap- 
pened after changed the actual course of things. 

Thus, nous etions vainqueurs, signifies, we were victorious 
thus far ; while nous fumes vainqueurs, signifies, we remain- 
ed victorious. 

Remark 4. As regards those verbs which imply continu- 
ance, mentioned page 292, and the like, they are sometimes, 
and without any apparent distinction, expressed by any one of 
the three past tenses. 

Ex. : II pleuvait, il plut, il a plu hier, 
It rained yesterday. 

Get homrae demeurait, demeura, a demeure* ici, 
That man lived here. 

Charles douze etait, fut, a 6te un grand homme, 
Charles the tivelfth was a great man. 

But it ought to be observed, that when one of these tenses is 
used instead of another, the mind always presents or receives 
the idea according to the precise meaning of the tense in which 
it is expressed. 

If I say, il pleuvait j il demeurait, I allude to a certain time, 
without expressing the beginning, duration, or end of the ac- 
tion ; Charles etait, I allude to what he used to be. The pre- 
terit, in such an instance, would naturally lead the mind to 
think of the circumstances which have put an end to those 
events or that state of things. 

Remark 5. When speaking of the physical qualities of a 
dead person, the imperfect is used instead of either of the pre- 
terits, undoubtedly because such qualities can relate but to the 
body, of which nothing remains for us after death, or thai we 
are obliged to understand, used to be so-and-so during his life- 
time. 

But, consistent with the principle contained in the Remark 
2, we must say, Clara fut belle jusqu'd sa vingtieme annee, 
Clara was handsome until her twentieth year, as ,the end of 
the time is here determined. 

N.B. The imperfect is to the preterit, in narrations, what the scenery 
is to the play, in theatrical representations. 



What are the verbs with which it seems indifferent to use any of the three 
past tenses ?•— Is that really indifferent, or do these tenses all convey a different 
meaning ? 



verbs* 297 



EXERCISE. 

Hie derivatives of verbs 7, 8, 9, and 10, of the list, page 143. 
My cousin was learning his lesson when you interrupted him. I was- 
going to marKet when i met wii'n your sister. She was looking at me 
when I perceived her. Who was singing in the room when I entered? 
I did not know that you were so industrious. It is said that this man 
was very strong, but I do not think that he was wicked. We used to 
go to the theatre last year, nearly every night, but now we always re- 
main at home. I tnought that you did not like to go out. He was 
young and hid no experience ; he was easily deceived. He was sick 
when he left New- York, and died at sea. He bribed the witnesses, 
and that displeased his partners. We pursued them till the evening, 
and then lost their traces. It rained this morning, and we could not go 
out. Did you know your lesson yesterday ? Pepin looked at them,, 
rushed doxon into the arena, drew his sword and cut off the head of the 
lion. I have performed much work this year. Vv hat did you tell me 
this afternoon ? I did not hear you. We laughed a great deal to-day. 
This island was inhabited during several years by the savages. That 
chilJ was born on the tenth of April, 1827. Where are the men who 
built, those pyramids? She was the only one who survived. Your 
^conversation displeased me this morning. I always thought that you 
were not older than I. Where did you put my penknife? Did 
you compose the music or the words? The weather was very bad yes- 
terday. It rained all the morning, and it snowed afterwards. My 
daughter was very small until he; 1 eighteenth year • 'but then ste~g*®5 
tall. He was young, handsome, and rich, and, notwithstanding these 

| advantages, she refused him. General Du^ommier was beloved by 
^is soldi ers; he was killed at the battle of the Black Mountain. If 
you knew how to make that, you would do it. If you should tell him 
yo-ir opinion, he would listen to you. What would she do, if you 
should pretend to be dissatisfied? When he has offended his father, 
he is sorry for it. When he has finished his task, he plays with the 
other boys. My father complied with all my wishes, as long as he saw 
that I was reasonable. My correspondent in France writes to me that 

! he has been so successful in his business, that he is going to retire. 
He sent two ships to China, and gained on both about two hundred 
thousand dollars. As soon as he has dined, he goes to bed and sleeps 

j one hour. He used to spend here three hours every day last year. 

| There my companions left me, and I opened the door of the castle. I 
sa-v nothing curious in the first rooms that I crossed. The most gloomy 
silence reigned in that place, which seemed to be the abode of the dead 
rather than of the living. I thought at first that I should find nobody 
in the whole house, but as I was going to open a small door, which 
was m one of the corners of a large parlour, I heard the voice of a per- 
son who was reading. I then knocked ; a young man cstme and open- 
ed the door. He asked me what I wanted of him, with such a severe 
look, that he frightened me. However, I examined him with attention. 
His eyes were black and expressive ; his looks, fixed on my person, 
seemed to wait for an answer, which he appeared to be anxious to re- 
ceive. I cast my eyes on the book which he held in his hands, but it 
was written in characters that were unknown to me. I never hear<i 

I |he rest of the story. 



298 VERBS. 

OF THE PLUPERFECT AND PRETERIT ANTERIOR, 

There is some difficulty in distinguishing between these two 
tenses. The learner is therefore advised to read attentively 
what follows. 

N. B. Observe that these two tenses correspond to the English com- 
pound tenses formed with had and a past participle. 

The pluperfect being a compound of the imperfect partakes 
of the signification of that tense. 

The pluperfect expresses a thing as having taken place at 
any period antecedent to the time when another thing hap- 
pened^ or to any time mentioned in the sentence. 

■Ex. : J'avais soupe quand il entra, 
I had supped when he came in. 
J'avais find a midi, 
J had finished at twelve o'clock. 

Two hours or two minutes may have intervened between 
my supper and the time mentioned, but the exact length of 
that time is not determined. 

The pluperfect is also used to express an action that was 
frequently repeated ; it then generally accompanies the im- 
perfect. 

^ x < • Des que j'avais dejeune* j'allais a la chasse, 

Jis soon as I had breakfasted, I used to go a hunting. 
The preterit anterior expresses an action that had taken 
place immediately before another which is also past ; so that 
no time whatever, has intervened between the two events. It 
is important to observe that in this instance the preterit ante- 
rior is used instead of the pluperfect, only when immediately 
preceded by an adverb of time. 

Ex. : Gtuand j'eus fini je sortis, 

When I had finished I went out. 

and, J'avais dine quand je sortis, 

I" had ained when I went out. 

The preterit anterior is also used without a reference to 

another action, when the verb is accompanied by an adverb 

of time, or any other expression relating to the duration of 

the action expressed by this verb. 

Ex. .* Nous eumes bientot fini 3 

We had soon finished. 

Remark. Even when an adverb of time precedes the 

verb, the pluperfect being a compound of the imperfect, must 

What does the pluperfect express 1— When is it to be used besides ?— What 
does the preterit anterior express ?— When is it to be used 1— Which of these 
two tenses must be used after an adverb of time ?WWhich must be used whe^ 
$here is a repetition pf tfte action \ 



I 

i 




VERBS. 299 

be used, if the verb expresses an action that was repeated, or 
that used to take place, as in the example ; Des que f avals 
dejeune fallals a la chasse. 

The preterit anterior is also used to signify a thing that was 
completed precisely at a time mentioned in the sentence. It 
differs from the preterit definite or simple tense, inasmuch as 
the latter tense expresses the whole duration of the action from 
beginning to end. while the former mentions only the end of 
the action. 

Thus, J'eus dine a mldl, signifies, I had dined at twelve 
precisely, while, je dinals a mldl, means, / dined at twelve 
o'clock, that is to say, I commenced dining. 

The preterit anterior is, in this instance, used only when 
accompanied by an adverb of time, or any expression deter- 
mining the time, unless the verb expresses an action repeated. 

Ex. : II eut fini avant nous, He had done before us. 

Cluand j'etais a 1'ecole j'avais toujours fini mes leqons avant mon 
frere, 

When I was at school, I had always my lessons finished before my bro- 
ther. 

Rule. The pluperfect is used after the conjunction si, if. 

Ex. : Si Pierre n'avait pas remis mes lettres, 
If Peter had not delivered my letters. 

Remark. There is a tense of the French verbs, of which 
nothing has yet been said. It is called by some grammarians 
preterit anterior Indefinite or surcom,pound. It is formed 
from the preterit indefinite of either auxiliary, and a past par= 
ticiple. 

Ex. : J'ai eu chante, J have sung. 

This tense was not mentioned among the conjugations, on 
account of its being very seldom used. There is yet an in- 
stance in which it could not be supplied by another. This is 
when the English verb construed with had and a past parti- 
ciple, and expressing a thing which took place at any time, a 
part of which has yet to elapse, is accompanied by such words 
as determine the use of the preterit anterior. The above men- 
tioned tense supplies its place in this instance, inasmuch as 
the praterit anterior being compounded of the preterit definite, 
can be used but for a thing that took place at a time which 
has entirely elapsed. 

Ex. : Ce madn apres qu'il a eu dejeune je lui ai parl£, 

This morning, after he had breakfasted I spoke to him. 

Which when the action ceased at a time mentioned 1— How is the tense 
called preterit anterior indefinite formed?— When is it to be used! 




300 VERBS. 

It must be remarked that this tense is very seldom used, and 
that it is better in all instances to express the phrase by ano- 
ther mode. 

Ex.: Ce matin apres m'etre lev£ je suis sorti, 

This morning, after I had got up I went out. 
Je lui ai par!6 apres son dejeun£, 
J spoke to him after he had breakfasted. 

N. B. The pluperfect is also used instead of the preterit definite, as 
marked page 233. 

EXERCISE. 

The derivatives of verbs Nos. 12, 13, and 14, of the list, page 143. 

He was not satisfied with my work, and, after I had undone it and 
done it again, I do not know how many times, I gave up. They had 
counterfeit bank notes, and the^ were punished according to law. Af- 
ter the tailor had fine-drawn the rent, nobody could see the place. The 
whole company went to see the sea-monster, and he had disappeared. 
We had gone to that place before, but we had forgotten the road ; and 
as soon as our guide had left us, we took another way. We had al- 
ready walked for several hours, when we perceived our mistake and 
turned back. When we had walked nearly the same length of time, 
we stopped. Formerly, when I had read a book I knew all it con- 
tained, but now I always forget it. When I was a boy, as soon as I 
had done my lessons I used to go out. When he had dined he used 
to sleep, and that habit injured his health. I showed him that letter 
this morning, and as soon as he had read it, he went out. 

OF THE FUTURE SIMPLE AND FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

These two tenses are used in French as they are in English, 
But the learner must not forget what was said of these tenses, 
pages 291 and 294, with regard to the instances in which they 
are preceded by the conjunction if and the adverbs of time, 

EXERCISE. 

The derivatives of verbs 15, 16, and 17, of the list, page 143. 

I am very much altered, and I am sure that he will not recognise me; 
but if he will only consent to ask me a few questions, he will soon find 
out that I am his cousin. What will you do if he disowns you? He 
will soon have acquired a fortune. Give him these twenty dollars 
when he asks for them ; and if he asks for more, do not give him any. 
My father always takes me with him when he goes to the Exchange. 
I will go with you, if you go to church to-day. Punish him when he 



Is there any way of expressing the phrase preferable to the use of this tense? 
— What is it ?— Is there any difference between the use of the future tense, in 
English and French phrases 1 — What is said of the future after si?— What is 
said of the future after adverbs of time ? 



VERBS. 301 

does so. You will give him his tea only when he has learned his les* 
son. I will pay the painter when he has finished my portrait. We 
will pay your bill when you bring it to us. If you burn a phcenix he 
will rise again from his ashes. After he has increased his reputation 
by such means he will see it decrease. 

CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

The conditional is the mood which affirms on condition. 

Although the above definition be that which is generally given of the 
conditional, the learner must not take for granted that this mood must 
always be used when there is a condition; for, in French, as well as 
in English, the future tense is used to express a thing that will take 
place if another occur. 

Rule. The conditional is used in French when the doubt- 
ful event that will determine the performance of the condi- 
tional action, is expressed in French by a verb in the imper- 
fect or pluperfect of the indicative, which, imperfect or plu- 
perfect, according to the Rule, page 292, corresponds to the 
English subjunctive. There are, however, many phrases in 
which this condition is understood; but whenever the condi- 
tional mood is used, it may be accompanied by a verb in the 
imperfect or pluperfect of the indicative. 

Ex. : I would see him if I thought it proper, 
Je le verrais si je le croyais convenable. 

Sometimes the conditional is used, both in French and in 
English, to express a desire, or what the nominative to the 
verb would do, if in a different situation. 

Ex. : I should like to see you well, 
J'aimerais a vons voir Men. 
I would be sorry to see you unfortunate, 
Je serais f ache de vous voir malheureuse. 

Remark 1. The English auxiliary ,verbs, should and 
would, which have been put in correspondence with the 
French conditional, are not always translated into French 
by this mood. The scholar may observe that those auxilia- 
ries are also used in the subjunctive mood in English, and 
are not then translated into French by the conditional mood, 
which is used only when there is a condition in the phrase as 
explained above. 



What is the conditional mood ? — What other tense may be used when a con- 
dition is in the sentence 1— In what tense must the verb expressing the condi- 
tion be used, to determine the use of the conditional 1— Can that verb ever be 
understood ?— Are the auxiliaries should and would always translated by the con- 
ditional 1 

26 



302 VERBS. 

N. B. The manner of translating should and ivould, when they caiV 
not be expressed by the conditional, will be explained at the end of this 
chapter. 

Remark 2. There is a second conditional past, an example 
of which was given with the verb to have, page 93. It is form- 
ed by the imperfect of the subjunctive of the auxiliary verb, 
and the past participle ; as, J'eusse parle, instead of flaurais 
parle. This past tense, very often employed in a refined style, 
is seldom used in conversation. It belongs to all the verbs, 

EXERCISE. 

The verbs, Numbers 1 and 2, of the list, page 146. 

I would preserve that fruit if I had sugar. Would you not go to 
Jdanhatlanville to-day, if the weather were fine ? Kis word would have 
been sufficient for me. That money would suffice if I should provide 
for myself alone. Would you not pay him if he were more polite ? I 
should certainly do it, but he is too insolent. Would they not have 
introduced me to you, if I had asked them for that favour ? I have pre- 
served some peaches, and I would have preserved more, if it were not 
for that circumstance. I should prevent him from doing wrong, if I had 
any power over him. My master would not have pardoned me, if he 
had known that I missed my lesson by my own fault. That supply 
sufficed us for a whole week, but would not have sufficed for all the 
time we spent there. Why would she not come if she had time ? 

OF THE IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

The imperative is that mood which commands, exhorts, en- 
treats, or permits. It is a present, with respect to the injunc- 
tion, and a future with respect to the thing enjoined. 

That mood has no first person in the singular, as it is not 
necessary to speak to one's self. It must be observed, how- 
ever, that in writing, or on the stage, where all must be made 
public, a person often addresses himself in the imperative mood : 
but in such cases, the first person of the plural is used, instead 
of the singular ; yet, if the verb be followed by an adjective, 
that adjective remains singular. 

The imperative mood does not allow the expression of a 
nominative pronoun in French. That pronoun is always un- 
derstood. 

Remark. No third persons of the imperative are found in 
this Grammar, for the reason that the French do not possess 
these persons. They are obliged to borrow the third persons 

What is said of the second conditional past?— What is the imperative mood ? 
— Has it any first person singular ?— What person is substituted for this?— In 
what instance ? — What is said of the third persons of the imperative ? 



VERBS. 303 

>of the subjunctive mood, as has been indicated by the English 
accompanying all the verbs of which the conjugation is given 
at full length. 

EXERCISE. 

The verbs, Numbers 3, 4, and 5, of the list, page 146. 

John, where are you going? say! Stop, thief! Mary, you will 
fall : take care ! Let us not curse those who curse us. Know that 
God reads the secrets of your heart. Let us go away ; do you not see 
that it is late ? Let her go out, since she does not wish to stay. Tell 
me, good man ! what are you doing here? Let them write to their pa- 
rents. Punish thyself for thy faults, but do not attribute to thyself the 
faults of others. Know how to live, and you will know how to die. 
Let us know our duty, and let him know his. Go away immediately! 
ParewellJ Do not use my penknife without wiping it afterwards. 



OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

The subjunctive is that mood which expresses a subordina- 
tion to what precedes; with this dependance it forms sense, but 
otherwise not. 

It might be thought from this, that any verb is in the sub- 
junctive mood when it is subordinate to a preceding verb; but 
as this is not always the case, the circumstances in which this- 
mood is used must be examined with attention. 

The subjunctive does not affirm the action ; it merely indi- 
cates it. 

The verb is therefore put in the subjunctive, when the ac- 
tion which it expresses is in subordination to a verb meaning; 
wish, desire, want, obligation, ditty, com/mand, expectation^ 
consent, doubt, fear, or admiration, as these verbs do not affirm 
that the action or event which is wished, desired, commanded^ 
feared, <$c, will take place, or has taken place ; but they mere- 
ly indicate that action or event as the end or object of the. 
wish, command, consent, fear, ofc. 

Ex. : Je desire, je commande, je consens, je m'etonne, j'ai besoiiij. 
j'attends, je doutequ'il vienne, je crains qu'il ne vienne, 

I wish he would come; I command, consent that he should come; lam 
astonished at his coming; I ivant him to come ; I expect that he will come ; 
I doubt ivhether he will come; I fear lest he shoidd come. 

N. B. Verbs which require the negative adverb ne after them, as in 
the above example the verb to fear, will be spoken of in a particular- 
paragraph. 

What is the subjunctive mood?— What are the verbs that require the use of 
the subjunctive ? 




304 VERBS. 

A verb is also put in the subjunctive mood, after impersonal 
verbs, and particularly after to be, when used impersonally^ 
and followed by an adjective or a noun, when these verbs, ad- 
jectives, or nouns, convey an idea of wish, want, obligation, 
duty, fyc. 

Ex. : II importe, il est bon, prudent, convenable que vous alliez, 
It is important, it is good, prudent, fit, that you should go, 
II n'est pas besoin que je sache votre nom, 
There is no need of my knowing your name. 

But if the first verb or the adjective have a positive signifi- 
cation, the second verb must be put in the indicative. 

Ex. : II arrive qu'il a perdu, It happens that he has lost. 

II est vrai, sur, evident qu'il perdra, 
It is true, sure, evident, that he will lose. 

Remark 1. The verbs croire, to believe ; penser, to think ; 
dire, to say ; soutenir, to maintain ; gager, parier, to bet ; 
imaginer, to imagine ; soupconner, to suspect ; presumer, to 
presume ; voir, to see ; sentir, to feel ; esperer, to hope, and 
others, expressing affirmation, and used affirmatively, do not 
require the subjunctive, as they do not express a sufficient 
doubt. The impersonal verb il semble, it seems ; when used 
with a personal pronoun, as, il me semble, it seems to me,, 
must be placed among these. II semble, without a personal 
pronoun, always governs the subjunctive. 

Ex. : Je pense, je crois, je soutiens, je dis, je gage, je parie, j'ima* 
gine, je soupgonne, je presume, &c, qu'il fait ou fera cela, 

I think, believe, maintain, say, bet, imagine, suspect, presume, §*c., that 
he does or will do that. 

These verbs do not affirm, it is true, but they induce the hearer or 
reader to consider the action which follows them as almost certain. 

Suppose, for instance, that I inquire for a person. If the answer is, 
I think, I believe, I presume, I say, I bet, I imagine, I suspect, fyc, that he 
will soon return, that answer expresses a possibility, and the object of 
the person who speaks is to make me believe that the other person will 
soon return. It is just the same as if the same person had said, he is ta 
come, adding, I presume, I believe, I think. 

The same inversion cannot be made with the other verbs, without 
changing entirely the meaning of the sentence ; when a person says, 
I wish he would come, you cannot understand he will come, I wish. 

Remark 2. If the above verbs, croire, penser, dj-c, and even 
the impersonal verbs il arrive, il est sur, <fyc., are used nega- 

When do the verbs croire, penser, <J-c, require to be followed by the subjunc- 
tive ?— 'Do impersonal verbs require to be followed by the subjunctive? — When 
is the impersonal verb to be followed by the indicative ? 



VERBS. 305 

lively or interrogatively, the subjunctive is required, as there 
is no affirmation of the second verb, and the whole sentence is 
either doubtful or negative. 

Ex. : Pensez-vous qu'il sorte ? 
Do you think he will go out ? 
Je ne crois pas qu'il sache cela, 
J do not think he knows that. 

Remark 3. Sometimes a verb is used in the interrogative 
way, not with a view to ask a question, but in order to give 
more force to the sentence, or in an exclamation ; then the 
affirmation, far from being destroyed, is still stronger, and the 
verb is used in the indicative. 

Ex. : Oubliez-vous que je peux vous punir? 
Do you forget that I can punish you ? 

Rem ark 4. The subjunctive is also used after a relative pro- 
noun, the antecedent of which is, 1st, a superlative relative ; 
2d, a word having the sense of a superlative relative ; such as, 
premier, principal, dernier, seul, unique, <$c. ; 3d, an indefi- 
nite pronoun, or an adverb having a negative sense. (See what 
was said on the indefinite pronouns, of the 4th class, page 275 ;) 
And 4th, a substantive which is the objective of a negative 
verb, or which is used in an indefinite sense. 

Ex. : C'est le plus beau navire qu'on ait jamais construit, 
It is the finest ship Uiey ever have constructed. 
La premiere giraffe vivante qui ait ete ameneeen France, 
The first cameleopard that has been brought alive in France, 
Je voudrais voir quelqu'un qui le connut, 
I" should like to see somebody who knows him. 
Vous ne trouverez pas de maison qui lui convienne, 
You will not find a house to suit him. 
Connaissez-vous un homme qui puisse faire cela? 
Do you know a man ivho can do that ? 

But if the indefinite pronoun is used in a phrase which is 
evidently affirmative, and conveys no idea whatever of doubt> 
the verb is used in the indicative. 

Ex. : Gtuelqu'un qui le commit vous dira, &c, 
Somebody xoho knows him will tell you.. 

Remark 5. When a verb, subordinate to another, is joined 
to it by one of the relative pronouns, it is important to observe 
whether the second verb conveys an idea of doubt or affirma- 
tion. In the latter instance, the verb must be used in the indi- 

When is a verb put in the subjunctive after a relative pronoun 1— What are 
the instances in which, in this case, a verb may be used in the indicative'? 

2.6* 



306 VERBS. 

cative mood, and the subjunctive is only used in the former 
instance. 

Ex. : Paspire a une place qui est agreable, 
J aspire to a situation which is pleasant. 
Paspire a une place qui soit agreable, 
I aspire to a place that may be pleasant. 

1 : Remark 6. The indicative mood is used instead of the sub- 
junctive, when the person who speaks intends to affirm the 
point, that the nominative of the first verb considers as doubt- 
ful, or when it is an object of eternal truth. 

Ex. : Croyez-vous que Dieu a cr£e le ciel et la terre ? 

Do you believe that God has created the heavens and earth ? 

Remark 7. By a peculiarity of the French language which 
will be spoken of again with the adverbs, the verb used in the 
subjunctive must be preceded by the negative ne. 

1st. After the verbs, nier, to deny ; desesperer, to despair ; 
disconvenir, to deny ; douter, to doubt ; when these verbs are 
negative, or interrogative. 

Ex. : Vous ne pouvez nier qu'il ne soit le plus genereux des 
hommes, 

You cannot deny that he is the most generous of men. 

2d. After the verbs craindre, to fear ; trembler, to redoubt ; 
apprehender, to apprehend ; avoir peur, to be afraid ; and se 
defter, to mistrust ; when these verbs are affirmative or interro- 
gative. 

Ex. : Je crains qu'il ne vienne, 
I fear lest he should come. 

N. B. Pas is added, if the verb in the subjunctive be nega- 
tive. 

Ex. : Je crains qu'il ne vienne pas, 
I fear he should not come. ■ 

3d. After the verbs empecher, to prevent; prendre garde 
or garder, to take care ; in every instance. 
Ex.: J'empecherai qu'il ne sorte, 

I will prevent him from going out. 

Remark 8. Although it is said that the subjunctive cannot 
be used, unless it is preceded by a verb which requires the use 
of this mood, yet the first verb is often suppressed, particularly 
before the third persons of the subjunctive, for the purpose of 
communicating force or elegance to the style. 

What are the verbs which require the following subjunctive to be preceded by 
ne?— Can a subjunctive ever be used without being preceded by the verb that 
requires it? 



VERBS. 307 

Observe that, in this case, the French verb used in the third 
person of the subjunctive, corresponds to the English phrases 
construed with the auxiliaries let or may. 

Ex. : Q,ue chacun fasse son devoir, 
Let every body 'perform his duty. 

Sometimes, not only the first verb, but also the que is sup- 
pressed, particularly in proverbial sentences. 

Ex. : Eerive qui voudra, Let every one write who chooses. 
PJut a Dieu qu'il arrivat bientot, 
Please God that he would soon arrive. 
Vive le roi ! vivent les princes, 
Long live the king ! long life to the princes ! 

Remark 9. There is an instance of a verb used in the sub- 
junctive, without being preceded by another verb, either ex- 
pressed or understood. It is the first person of the present of 
the subjunctive of the verb savoir. It forms a very elegant 
mode of expression. 

Ex. : Je ne sache rien de plus precieux que la vertu, 
I know nothing more precious than virtue. 

N. B. There is a subject which French grammarians have left unex- 
plained, and which requires examination. They have not determined 
whether the verbs croire, penser, <$»c, ought, or ought not, to be used in 
the subjunctive mood after an interro-negative verb. Since interro- 
negative verbs convey an idea of affirmation, it seems that the verb 
which follows them should be used iri the indicative mood ; but there 
is not a word, nor even an example of this difficulty to be found in the 
standard works. The silence of grammarians on this subject appears 
to prescribe the use of the subjunctive mood ; but the sense and the ana- 
logy, with other rules, seems to require the indicative. 

Important Remark. Notwithstanding ail that has been 
said on the use of the subjunctive, it should be observed that the 
second verb must be put in the infinitive, and not in the sub- 
junctive, if the nominative of the second verb be the same per- 
son who wishes, commands, fears, $c. 

Ex. : Je veux etre obei, I wish that I may he obeyed. 

There are, besides, many verbs, particularly those expressing 
command, consent, and obligation, which may be followed by 
the infinitive instead of the subjunctive. The infinitive is then 
preceded by the preposition de. 

Ex. : Je lui permets d'aller, I permit him to go. 



Is there any instance of the subjunctive used without a reference to a pre- 
ceding verb ? — How is the second verb to be used when its nominative is the same 
as that of the first verb 1— Are there verbs which may be followed either by an 
infinitive or a subjunctive 1— By what preposition are they connected with the in- 
finitive ? 



308 



VERBS. 



Remark that the verb in the infinitive must never be pre- 
ceded by ne 9 after the verbs given in the remark 7th. 

Ex. . Je crams de tomber, I fear lest I should fall, 

N. B. It is not necessary to the use of the subjunctive mood in 
French, that the English verb should be put in the subjunctive ; on the 
contrary, the English expression, whatever it may be, must be trans- 
lated by the subjunctive, if preceded by the above verbs. 

Before giving examples on all the above rules, it will be necessary to 
understand which of the four tenses of the subjunctive mood should be 
used according to circumstances. 

OF THE USE OF THE TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

The action expressed by the subjunctive is supposed to be 
either present, future, or past, with regard to the verb that pre- 
cedes. If it be present or future, the verb is put in the simple 
tenses, and if it be past, the compound tenses are used. 

When the action is present or future, the present of the sub- 
junctive is used after the present and future absolute and ante- 
rior of the indicative ; but after any other tense, the verb is 
put in the imperfect of the subjunctive. 

When the action is past, the preterit or compound of the 
present^subjunctive, is used after the present or preterit indefi- 
nite, future simple, and compound ; after the other tenses the 
pluperfect of the subjunctive is used. 



EXAMPLES 

When the action is present or 
future, 

Je veux, 



When the action is past. 



Je veux, 
Je voudrai, 
J'aurai voulu, 

Je voulais, 
Je voulus, 
J'ai voulu, 
J'avais voulu, 
J'eus voulu, 
Je voudrai, 
J'aurais voulu, 



que tu allies. {' aivo f lu ; 

1 Je voudrai, 

J'aurai voulu, 



que tu sois 
alle. 



Je voulais, 
que tu alias- Je voulus, que tu fusses 

ses. J'avais voulu, y al'e. 

J'eus voulu, 
Je voudrais, 
J'aurais voulu, J 

Remark 1. The present of the subjunctive is always em- 
ployed when the second verb expresses an action which exists 
at all times. 

Dieu a entoure les yeux de tuniques fort minces, afin qu'on puisse 
voir a travers, 

God has surrounded the eyes with very thin coats that we may see through 
them. 

In what case are the simple tenses of the subjunctive used? — When are the 
compound tenses used?— After what tenses is the present of the subjunctive 
used ? 



VERBS. 309 

' Remark 2. The imperfect and its compound, of the same 
mood, are used after all the tenses, when the subjunctive is fol- 
lowed by an expression which marks some condition. 

Ex. : Je doute que vous fissiez cela, si je ne vous y for^ais, 

/ doubt whether you would do that if I should not compel you. 

Remark 3. When in the third person of the subjunctive, 
a substantive is the nominative of the verb, the que is placed 
before the noun. 

Ex. : II veut que mon cousin vienne, He wishes my cousin to come, 

GENERAL EXAMPLES ON THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Je veux que vous fassiez cela, 

I want you to do that, (that you should do.) 

Je desire qu'il vienne, 

I wish him to come, (that he would come.) 

Pensez-vous qu'on ait commence ? 

Do you think they have begun ? 

Dites-leur qu'ils m'attendent, 

TtU. them to wait for me, (that they should wait.) 

Je doutais qu'il vous plaignit,. 

I doubted whether he would pity you. 
Pensiez-vous qu'il me l'eut dit, 
Did yon think he had told me of it, 

II est bon que vous ie sachiez, 
It is good for you to know it. 

II importait que vous vous retirassiez^ 
It was important for you to withdraw. 
C'est le meilleur vin que vous ayiez bu, 
It is the best wine you ever drank. 
Gtuelque. opinion que soit la votre, 
Whatever your opinion may be. 
J'ai bien peur que vous ne soyez malade, 
lam very much afraid that you should be sick. 

The verb to wish, followed by icould or could, is translated 
into French by the conditional, and the second verb is then put 
in the imperfect, or pluperfect of the subjunctive according to. 
the rule. 

Ex. : Je voudrais qu'il revint bientot, 

I wish he would come soon. 

II voudrait que nous Peussions aide. 
He wishes that we had helped him. 



After what tenses is the imperfect used?— The preterit definite 1— The pre^ 
terit indefinite ? 



310 VERBS. 



Je voudrais etre chez moi, 
/ ivish I was home. 

This last example is according- to the remark, page 307. 

N. B. The subjunctive mood is also required by many conjunctions^ 
but it is thought advisable to give an exercise on what precedes, before 
passing to that second explanation of the use of the subjunctive mood. 



EXERCISE. 

The verbs, Numbers 6, 7, and 8, of the list, page 146. 

I wish you to read, and I do not, accordingly, wish you to go out. I 
am astonished that you laugh in the class, since you know that those 
who laugh are punished. I doubt whether he drinks brandy, as he be- 
longs to a society, the statutes of which forbid its members from drink* 
ing liquor. Did you not want me to come to-day ? What do you 
want me to do J I want you to be still. I doubt whether you will 
succeed. Do you permit me to go to the ball? I believe you are a man 
of genius. Do you think he is a steady man ? I bet he is a German. 
Did you suspect him to be guilty of such an infamous action? I hope 
you will write me when you arrive in France. Do you not maintain 
that your brother will be more successful than all his predecessors? I 
Say that he deserves his punishment. Do you wish that he should be 
feepi in ? It is prudent for you to escape. It is true that he is extremely 
negligent, but is it ascertained that he is not sick ? When it happens 
jthat he wins a game, he is overjoyed. That army was the finest that 
a general ever commanded. He was the most ambitious man who has 
ever existed. I know nobody who translates Hebrew as easily as he. 
Show me a road which may lead me to Paris. He would not believe 
^that twice two are four, if you would tell him so. Whatever reason 
you may give, you will be punished. I fear lest you should be deceived. 
The king feared that the army was not attached to him. You feared 
that he had not found him. Do they deny that they laughed when I 
spoke? No, sir, but they do not despair that you will pardon therm 
Tell them to take care not to offend me another time, for I would pre- 
vent them from coming here again. Let every body know in what si- 
tuation he is placed. Since they want to laugh, let them laugh, but let 
thetn not come here any more. I know nothing more vexatious than 
such a disappointment. I wish I were able to oblige you. She wishes 
she were a queen. I command you to stay; and I do not permit him to 
move. Where did you decide that he should go? Tell him to go where 
he wishes to stay. They wished me to deal with them, but I refused. 
Did you doubt that he woujd pay me ? If I were you, I would tell him 
to do it, or to go away ; and if you dare not say it, I will tell him not 
to speak to you to-morrow. We wanted him to clean that room, but 
he answered that he did not think fit to obey us. I do not allow you 
-to speak. Do not permit the wicked to be so powerful. It would have 
been more proper for you to have seen him before. Did he think that 

What is said of wish followed by would or cqtffl ? 



verbs. 311 

the bargain had been concluded ? I wish you had done that, for I fear 
your brother had relied upon you for keeping it ready. I do not believe 
he has yet come; I do not doubt that he has drunk that wine. 



OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD AFTER CONJUNCTIONS, 

There are many conjunctions which require to be followed 
by the subjunctive, viz., all those which are followed by que, 
A list of the principal ones will follow. 

Ann que in order that, that 

pour que so thai 

avant que before 

en cas que in case that 

bien que although 

encore que although 

loin que far from 

excepte que except that 

non que ) 

non pas que > not that 

pas que 3 

malgre que notwithstanding that 

moyennant que provided 

pour peu que however little 

quoique although 

pourvu que provided that 

suppose que suppose that 

soit que whether 

N. B. The simple conjunction que, governs the subjunctive 
when used elllptically for any of the above conjunctions, as 
takes place when one of these conjunctions needs to be used 
several times in succession. 

Ex. : Pourvu qu'il vienne et qu'il vous voie, 
Provided he comes and sees you. 

Rule. These conjunctions are followed by any of these four 
tenses, according to the sense of the sentence, and the tenses 
of the preceding verb. 

Remark. The conjunction sz,if ; does not in French require 
to be followed by the subjunctive mood ; but the que that fol- 
lows s^ and represents % requires the subjunctive. 

Ex. : S'il arrive qu'il perde, 
If he happen to lose ; 
If it happens that he loses. 



What are the conjunctions which govern the subjunctive ?— What tenses of 
the subjunctive are they followed by?— What is said of the conjunction si 1 



812 VERBS. 

The conjunction si, may, instead of being repeated, be re- 
presented by the conjunction que, followed by the subjunctive. 

Ex. : S'il vient et qu'il vous aper^oive, 
If he comes and perceives you. 

Si requires the subjunctive, when used in the sense of how- 
ever, before an adjective. 

Ex. : Si petit qu'il soit, However small he may be. 

The conjunctions d moins que, unless ; de peur que, de 
crainte que, for fear that; which require the use of the subjunc- 
tive, require the verb to take the negative ne, although affirma- 
tive i biit pas is added if the verb be negative. 

Ex. : A moins qu'il ne m'envoie mes livres, 
Unless he should send me my books. 
De peur que, de crainte qu'il ne meure, 
For fear he should die. 

Avant que, before, which also requires to be followed by the 
subjunctive mood, requires the verb to take the negative ne, 
when the action expressed by the verb is not certain. But ne 
is not used if there is certainty. 

Ex. : Fermez la cage avant que l'oiseau ne s'envole, 
Shut the cage before the bird flies off. 

Le roi voulut voir ce chef-d'oeuvre avant merae qu'il fut achev6, 
The king desired to see that master-piece even before it w as finished. 

Until, before a verb, is always expressed byjusqu'a ce que, 
and governs the subjunctive. 

Jusqu'a ce qu'elle s'en aille, 
Until she goes away. 

The English prepositions without and in spite of, followed 
by a present participle, determined by a possessive adjective, 
are translated into French by sans que and malgre que, fol- 
lowed by the subjunctive. 

Faites-le sans que j'y sois, (though I may not be there.) 
Do it without my being there. 
Ctuoique je le iui aie dit, 
In spite of my telling him. 

EXERCISE. 

The verbs, Numbers 9, 10, and 11, of the list, page 146. 
I do not believe that you have understood why I spoke as I did. I 
said that, in order that every one should pity him. Although he ap- 

Of a moins que 1 — Of avant que ?— Of de peur que ? — Of sans que ? — How is until, 
before a verb, expressed in French ? 



VERBS. 313 

pears to be very smart, yet he is very dull. If you would be ready to- 
morrow, I would be contented. Provided every thing goes as you 
wish, yon do not complain of your lot. In case that his son has been 
excluded from the society, he will be very much afflicted. You con- 
clude that you will obtain that situation if your letter has arrived in 
time and has been given to the president himself. Do you believe that 
every thing wjli turn well, if you pay half now and you obtain a delay 
for the rest ? He will not believe you, unless you give him proofs. We 
concluded that he would not receive him until he had made^ an apology 
for his past conduct. I will not sing until your sister has gone. Very 
well, she says that she will not go until you sing. Unless you should 
take your lessons with this class, I do not know how I could take you. 
His father wished to send him to Europe, lest he should be a fireman. 
He stayed all day at home, for fear that you might miss him. Can you 
not finish your business without my being here continually ? In spite 
of his going there ten times a day, he is nevertheless completely cheated,, 



SECTION V. 
OBSERVATIONS ON DIFFERENT VERBS. 

Some verbs which require peculiar observation will be 
placed here. 

OF THE VERB Fcdloir, AND THE ENGLISH AUXILIARY lUUSU 

Falloir To be necessary 

Fallu ' Been necessary 

II faut It must, it is necessary 

II fallait It was necessary 

II fallut It was necessary 

II faudra It shall be necessary 

II faudrait It should be necessary 

II a fallu, &c. It has been necessary, fyc. 

Gtu'il faille That it may be necessary 

du'il fallut That it might be necessary 
N. B. This verb has no present participle. 

The above verb, falloir, which implies obligation or neces- 
sity, not only corresponds to the English auxiliary verb must, 
and to the above verb to be necessary, but also to all expressions 
implying an obligation. The action which is to be performed 
is put in the subjunctive, and the nominative of must is placed 
before the verb which expresses that action ; for falloir being 
an impersonal verb, cannot be construed with any nominative 
except il. Thus, II faut que j'aille, signifies, I must go, it is 
necessary for me to go, or that I should go ; I have to go, 1 
ought to go, tf-c. 

What does falloir signify?— By what mood is it followed? 

27 



314 VER&S. 

II faut qu'il aille, He must go, fyc. 

II fallait que tu vinsses. Thou haclsi to come. 

II faudra que nous fassibris, We will he obliged to do. 

II faudrait que mon oncle me pre- It would be proper that my uncU 
sentat, should introduce me. 

Should the action be past, the compound tenses of the sub- 
junctive should be used according to the rules of this mood. 

Ex. : II faut que vous l'ayiez vu, You must have seen him. 

Remark I. Sometimes, when the agent of the action to be 
performed, is expressed by a personal pronoun, this pronoun 
is used as an objective indirect to the yerb falloir, and the se- 
cond verb put in the infinitive, 

II me faut ecrire aujourd'hui, I must write to-day. 

II lui fallut obeir, He was compelled to obey. 

Remark 2. In this case the verb falloir may be followed 
bvan objective direct, and then signifies tfcat the objective in- 
direct must have the thing introduced as the objective direct. 

II me faut un chapeau, I must have a hat. 

II leur faudrait une servante, They should have a servant. 

Remark 3. Falloir may be followed by an infinitive 
without a pronoun, and then only applies to the person 
spoken to, or sometimes has a vague and indeterminate 
sense. 

II faut faire cela, That must be done, 

II faut mourir, We must die. 

N. B. Falloir followed by an infinitive has more the form 
of an advice, than when followed by the subjunctive. In the 
latter instance it is most generally used as a command. 

Remark 4. Falloir is construed with the pronoun le : hav- 
ing the sense of that, as in the following example. 

Ex. : II le faut, That is necessary. 

EXERCISE. 

The verbs numbers 12, 13, and 14, of the list, page 146. 

We must conquer our own passions before we blame the faults of 
others. People must not prejudice the interest of their fellow-crea- 
tures. You must not think that nobody but you can succeed in that 
career ; for the sun shines for every body. We had to conquer the 

When can it be followed by an infinitive ? — What does it signify when con- 
strued with an indirect objective?— What is the difference in sense between 
two phrases construed with falloir, in one of which this verb is followed by the 
subjunctive, and by the infinitive in the other. 



VERBS. 315 

neighbouring tribes before we thought of carrying the war further. It 
would be necessary for you to see the minister before Monday. We 
want two horses and a carriage. What must they do while you are 
absent ? Had they not to study their lessons instead of playing ? They 
must have been very successful j for they appear to be satisfied with 
their step. Soldiers, you must conquer or die. She must have been a 
very handsome woman in her youth. Let us do it since it is neces- 
sary. 

OF THE VERB VOUloir, AND THE AUXILIARY Will AND WOUld. 

The French verb vouloir answers for all English verbs ex- 
pressing will. 

Thus we ought to translate by the verb vouloir, the aux- 
iliary verbs will and would, if. instead of merely expressing 
a future action, they imply the will of the nominative of the 
sentence. 

Remark 1. It is not difficult to know when will, instead of 
forming the future tense with the verb that follows, must be 
translated by the present of the indicative of the verb vouloir: 
for will is invariably translated by the latter tense when it 
expresses a desire that is present. 

Ex. : Je ne veux pas sortir, ' I will not go out. 

(I do not wish to go out.) 
Voulez-vous venir avec moi ? Will you come with me ? 

(Do you wish to come with me?) 

Remark 2. On the same principle, would is no longer the 
•auxiliary by means of which the conditional mood is formed, 
when it expresses a past action. It is then translated by vou- 
loir in any of the past tenses. 

Ex. : II n'a pas voulu me parler, He would not speak to me. 

Remark 3. The past of the conditional of the verb vou- 
loir corresponds to the preterit of the verb wish followed by 
had or a personal pronoun and an infinitive. 

Ex. : Nous aurions voulu qu'il reussit, 
We wished he had succeeded. 

Remark 4. Vouloir being an active verb in French, does 
not require to be followed by the verb to have in all circum- 
stances. 

Ex.: Voulez-vous du bceuf roti? 

Will you have some roast beef? 

When is will translated by the present of vouloir ? — When is would translated 
by the past tenses of the same verb 1— How is the past of the conditional of 
this verb translated into French?— Does vouloir require always to be followed 
by the verb avoir 1 



316 VERBS. 

Remark 5. The verb vouloir, particularly in the past 
tenses, is often used before an infinitive, to signify that the ac- 
tion expressed by this infinitive has been tried or commenced, 
but to no effect. It can be rendered by the verbs to try or to 
commence, 

Ex. : Je voulus un jour lui parler de cela, 

I tried one day to speak to him about that. 

See, besides, all that has been said on this verb, in the note 
6, page 141, and page 309. 

EXERCISE. 

The verbs numbers 15 and 16, of the list, page 146. 

When I want him to translate Homer, he answers that he will not 
translate it. Very well, Sir ; what will you do with such an obstinate 
boy ? Why did you not tell him that, when I dine, I want to receive; 
nobody ? I told him that, Sir, but he would come in, and I could not 
prevent him. I went to the translator who lives opposite, in Order 
that he should translate that invoice, but he would not do it, unless I 
should pay him in advance. He would do it, I know, if you would 
tell him that it is for me. What will you have for your trouble ? 
Please to remember that I said that I will not receive any thing from 
you. He wants me to join that class, but I will not do it, because that 
would prevent me from taking my music lesson. If he would jom.^ 
to his petition the certificates which he showed to me, he would be ad- 
mitted without difficulty. When we saw him come, we wished him to 
be in China. 

OP THE FRENCH VERB Devoir, AND THE AUXILIARY VERBS, shall, 

should, and ought to. 

The verb devoir answers for all English verbs expressing 
duty or obligation. 

It renders in French, 

% 1st. The verb to be followed by to and a verb. 

Gluand devez-vous y aller? When are you to go there ? 

2d. The verb ought to. It is then generally used in the 
conditional. 

Vous devriez faire cela, You ought to do that. 

3d. The verb should, when it conveys the idea of a duty^ 
in which case it is put in the conditional. 

Ces enfans devraient aller a l'£cole, 
These children should go to school. 

What does the verb devoir answer for ? 



VERBS, 317 

Remark 1. Shall is never expressed by devoir, except in 
interrogative sentences. 

due dois-je faire ? What shall I do ? 

(What am I to do ?) 
Ou devons-nous aller ? Where shall we go ? 

{Where are we to got) 

Remark 2. The imperfect of this verb has two different 
meanings, as will be seen by the following examples. The 
sense of the sentence which accompanies this verb makes the 
distinction easy. 

Ex. : II devait etre avocat, He was to be a lawyer. 

I] devait etre en colere, He must have been in a passion. 

Remark 3. Its preterits, both definite and indefinite, may 
be translated as follows. They, however, signify that what 
follows has been performed. 

Ex. : Je dus lui dire cela, ) r . . ' ' "''■ ':. ;■ . 

J'ai du lui dire cela, \ Tt was ^ ** io tdl him tkat - 

Remark 4. The past of its conditional corresponds to the- 
verbs ought to or should, followed by the past of the infini- 
tive. 

Ex. : Vous auriez du faire cela, You should have done that. 

Remark 5. The imperfect of the subjunctive of devoir is 
used under the interrogative form as follows. 

Ex. : Dusse-je mourir je le dirais, 

I would say it even if I were to die. 

II faut qu'ils le fassent, dussent-ils tout perdre, 
They must do it, should they lose every thing. 

exercise. 

The derivatives Nos 3 and 5 of the verbs, list, page 146. 

"We are to leave the city very soon, and my brother is to sail to- 
morrow for the south. You should take care of our house during our 
absence. I told you before, and I tell you again, that you ought not to 
mention that, because I am to take a house myself. Yes, you say that 
again, but I foretell you that you will not execute it, and you should 
do something for us. You ought to have contradicted him when he 
said that you had slandered me. It was my duty to subscribe • and I 
say that your name ought to have been inscribed on that list. I will 
contradict him, even if he were to turn me out of his house. We 

When is shall translated by that verb ] — What does its conditional mood, pre^ 
sent tense, correspond to ?— How is the past of its conditional translated into 
English 1 — To what does its imperfect correspond? — To what do its past tens«s 
correspond ?— What does its subjunctive, used interrogatively, signify? 

27* 



318 VERBS. 

ought to have described to our friends all the places through which we 
have passed. Your father should subscribe to that paper. I believe 
that he is to subscribe to it. I will transcribe the whole of the declara* 
tion of independence, should I spend the night in doing it. 

OP THE VERB pOUVOW, AND THE AUXILIARY VERBS Can AND COUkl, 

may and might. 
N. B. See the note on this verb, page 141. 

We translate into French by the same verb, pouvoir, not 
only the verb to be able, but also the verbs can and may, 
could and might. 

Can and may are translated by the present of the indicative 
of pouvoir. 

Ex. : Je peux faire cela, I may do that, I can do that. 

Remark 1. Could is used in two different tenses in English, 
viz., the past and the conditional. The learner must there- 
fore observe in which of these tenses the English verb is used., 
in order to translate it by the corresponding tense in French. 

Ex. : I could not go out yesterday, 
Je ne pus pas sortir hier. 
I could go out now if I had my hat, 
Je pourrais sortir a present sifavais mon chapeau. 

N. B. It is not useless to remark, that, according to the rules on the 
past tenses, the imperfect of this verb refers to a state of things that is 
passed, and the preterit indefinite to a state of things going on. 

Remark 2. Might, from its use in English, is only trans- 
lated by the conditional. 

Ex. : I might be rich, Je pourrais ctre riche. 

Remark 3. The preterit indefinite, or compound of the pre- 
sent of the verb pouvoir, besides its various uses, corresponds 
to the auxiliary can, followed by have, and a past participle. 

Ex. : How can you have been so simple ! 
Comment avez-vous pu etre si simple ! 

Remark 4. The past of the conditional of pouvoir answers 
for the verbs could and might, followed by have and a past 
participle, 

Ex. : You might have succeeded, Vous auriez pu reussir. 

What does pouvoir answer for?— When is could translated by the past tenses 
of pouvoir" — When by the conditional of the same verb? — How is might trans- 
lated ?— What does the preterit indefinite of pouvoir represent 7 — To what Eng 
lish expressions does the past of the conditional of the verb pouvoir correspond %\ 



VERBS. 319 

Remark 5. In order to understand the explanation given 
page 141, on the use of pouvoir when interrogative and when 
negative, it is necessary to give more examples here. 

Observe that the place of ne marks the difference between 
the following phrases : 

Ex. : Je peux chanter, / can, or 7 may sing, 

Je ne peux pas chanter, I cannot sing. 

Je peux ne pas chanter, I may not sing. 

Puis-je chanter ? May I, or can I sing ? 

Ne puis-je pas chanter ? Can J, or may I not sing ? 

Puis-je ne pas chanter ? corresponds to May I do sucha thing as not to sing? 

Remark 6. The verb can is used in English in many in- 
stances when it is not represented in French, viz., when the 
possibility is less alluded to than the fact itself \ as with the, 
verbs to play, jouer ; to go, to walk, aller. 

Ex. : Can you play upon the piano? 
Jouez-vous du 'piano ? 
I can walk there in five minutes, 
Je vais la en cinq minutes. 

The following exercise is intended to be given both on the difficulty that pre- 
cedes, and on the explanation, page 141. 



EXERCISE. 

The derivatives, Numbers 6, 7, 8, and 11, of the verbs, list, page 146. 

They may re-elect the mayor, but they cannot please the majority 
by doing so. May I read over with you the history of England and 
that of France ? When he told me that he could not lend me that sum, 
I went to my banker, and he gave me all he could spare. You might 
try a second time; perhaps he could do for you now what the scarcity 
of money prevented him from doing. Could you make him smile? 
Thsy cannot have elected him for governor. I believe that he could 
have drunk and drunk again all day. They might very easily have 
made him believe that I was angry with him. They may not succeed 
the first time, but perseverance conquers all obstacles. Doctor, can I 
eat some soup to-day ? No, indeed, you cannot, until you are quite 
well. Can they not have found out that you intended to deceive 
them|? He said that he could not have laughed if he had been here, 
but he would have smiled with pity. Tell them that they might not 
have gained so much money if it had not been for my father. Could 
he have been here during my absence ? May we not study our lessons 
now, and play this evening ? May you know one day that you had a 
friend in me ! 



How can a difference be made between the negative form of can and that of 
may ? — What does je ne peux pas signify ?—-What does je ftux ne pas signify ? 



320 VERBS. 



OP THE FRENCH VERB laisser, AND THE ENGLISH VERB to let 

The first person plural of the imperative mood of the French 
verbs has been translated by the English imperative let, fol- 
lowed by the pronoun us and the verb ; and the same verb 
let, followed by a pronoun of the third person, corresponds to 
the third persons of the subjunctive mood, when the verb 
which requires the use of the subjunctive is understood. 

Ex. : Allons, Let us go. 

Gtu'elle sorte, for je desire qu'elle sorte, Let her go out. 

But observe that the verb to let has in English two distinct 
significations. 1st, It signifies what the desire of the person 
who speaks is, without any intention of asking permission, as 
in the two above examples ; and 2d, It is used for asking per- 
mission. In the latter instance, the second person of the im- 
perative of the verb laisser must be used, in correspondence 
to the English let, which is itself in that person. 

This distinction can be made without the least difficulty, 
when the English verb is folio wed by us; for, if it is wished 
that the person or persons spoken to may perform the action 
expressed by the verb, this verb must be put in the first person 
plural of the imperative ; while, if the person spoken to is 
simply to give permission, it will be necessary to use the se- 
cond person of the imperative of laisser. 

Ex.: Gentlemen, let us walk, Messieurs, mar chons. 

This means that all the persons present will walk. 
Father ! let us go out, Mon pere ! laissez-nous sortir, 

That is to say, allow us to go out. 

In the third persons it is necessary to see if the verb let can 
be supplied by allow. 

Remark. The verb laisser, signifying to allow, cannot al- 
ways be employed as an auxiliary to the following verb, as 
explained page 288. It is often considered as having a sepa- 
rate signification, particularly when both laisser and the fol- 
lowing verb have each a different objective. 

Ex.: Laissez-moi vous dire, • Let me tell you. 

But, except when the verb is in the imperative, as above, it 
is better to change the phrase, than to use, after laisser, a verb 
having a separate objective. 

What is the correspondence between the French verb laisser and the English 
verb to letl — When must let us be translated by laissez-nous 1— When ought the 
imperative to be used in the same instance ? — Wh^t is to be observed in the 
third persons ?— Must the verb laisser be always considered as an auxiliary to the 
following verbs 1 



JPAftTICIPLES. 321 

Remark* The verb to have is omitted after to let, 

Ex. : Jevous laisserai ce vin a ce prix, 

I will let you have this wine for that price. 

of the verbs savoir, faire, <^c. 

Several peculiarities of these verbs have been explained 
pages 141 and 307, with regard to savoir, and pages 137, (with 
the verb bouillir,) 288, and 289, respecting/aire and others. 

EXERCISE. 

The derivatives, Numbers 12 and 14, of the verbs, list, page 146. 

Ladies ! let us go out now : the air is cool, the evening delightful ; 
you will not be sorry for it. Thus spoke the two captains : General^ 
let us go on the hill, at the head of our companies, in order to see what 
those muskets are which glitter at a distance. Since he wants to speak,, 
let him speak ; but he may be persuaded that he will not convince us. 
Let me show you which way is the shortest. Let me not trouble you, 
sir ; I think that I can find the way myself. Let him speak, John ; f 
am convinced that he does not speak the truth. He slanders me ; but 
let him know that I can be revenged. Let me pass, will you ? Peter, 
let him pass ; he wants to go home. 

N. B. More might be said concerning some verbs which recraire pe- 

i culiar attention ; but these verbs are so intimately connected witfy the. 

gallicisms, that it will be more proper to place them in the Third Part,, 



CHAPTER VI. 
OF THE PARTICIPLE. 

A definition of the participle will be found page 149. 
The participle is either present or past. $ 

OP THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 

The participle present has either the sense of a verb, or that 
of an adjective. 

It is invariable when used as a verb, but agrees in gender 
and number with the substantive to which it relates, when 
used as an adjective. It forms its feminine by the addition of 
a mute e, and its plural by s. 

What is a participle ?— How many participles are there? 



322 



PARTICIPLES. 



It is a verb when it expresses an accidental action, and an 
adjective when it expresses a permanent qualification. 
When I say, 

J'ai vu cette femme obligeant ses amis, 
I saw that woman obliging her friends, 

I speak of an action which has taken place. But if I say, 

Cette femme est obligeante, 
That woman is obliging, 

I do not intend to express any action, but I merely wish to 
attribute to her the quality of being obliging. 

Remark 1. The present participle has the sense of an ad- 
jective when it precedes the noun in English, and also when it 
is placed after the noun on account of the words which fol- 
low it. 

Ex. : A head-dress shining with diamonds, 
Une coiffure brillante de diamans. 

Remark 2. It has the sense of a verb, when it has an ob- 
jective. 

Ex. : I have seen your sister charming every body, 
J'ai vu voire sceur charmant tout le monde. 

Remark. The present participle which follows a verb in the 
preterit, can be translated by the imperfect preceded by the re- 
lative qui. 

Ex. : I found her crying, Je la trouvai qui pleurait. 

EXERCISE. 

The verbs conjugated like traduire, Number 15, list, page 147. 
The two brothers are ministers of the gospel. 1 have seen them in- 
structing young children, and devoting to their education the time 
which their other duties had left them. The turkey which your ser- 
vant cooked was disgusting. We saw the dreadful conflagration ex- 
tending through the streets of the village, destroying every thing on its 
passage, and leaving nothing but ashes and misery. He seduced, by 
his astonishing eloquence, all who heard him. He conducts that busi- 
ness with trembling Ifands. They uttered piercing cries, when they 
saw themselves reduced to that extremity. We are constructing 
phrases, and parsing others. The wicked will raise their withering 
•voice, and you will see your growing reputation attacked by jealous 
people. He stood in his place, and looking at me with threatening 
eyes, he told me to leave him. We saw him walking in the room with 
long steps, and thinking undoubtedly of the means of escape. You 
induce them to err, by trying to help them. 

When is the present participle considered as a verb? — When is it used as an 
adjective?— In which of these instances does it agree with the noun? — How 
does it agree?— Give a simple rulo to distinguish the present participle used a& 
an adjective. —As a verb. 



PARTICIPLES. 323 

OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 

The past participle is also considered sometimes as a verb, 
and sometimes as an adjective, but the rules on its agreement 
being quite mechanical, will be laid down without entering 
into any explanation. 

The fern in me of the past participle is formed with a mute e } 
and the plural with an s. 

Rule 1. The past participle, employed without an auxi- 
liary, agrees in gender and number with the word to which it 
relates. 

Ex. : Un muraille peirite, A painted wall. 

Des enfans gates, Spoiled children. 

Des merchandises vendues, Sold goods. 

Remark. The French past participles, attendu, on ac- 
count of ; vu, considering ; suppose, supposing ; excepte, ex- 
cept; compris, included ; ci-joint, ci-inclus, enclosed : are in- 
variable when they precede the substantive which they qualify, 
as they may then be considered as prepositions. 

Ex.: Attendu les evenemens, On account of the events* 

Vous trouverez ci-joiut mes deux lettres, 
You will find here enclosed my two letters. 

The participle ete is always invariable. 

Rule 2. When the past participle is joined to the auxiliary 
avoir, it agrees in gender and number with its objective direct, 
when that objective is placed before the participle. 

N. B. The objective direct may be either a personal or a relative 
pronoun. 

Remark. Observe that the past participle, joined with 
avoir, never agrees with its nominative, its objective indirect, 
or with its objective direct, when this latter is placed after 
the participle. 

And above all, this participle, when joined to avoir, must be 
invariable, if it has no objective direct. 

Ex. : Envoyez-moi mes livres, si vous les avez lus, 
Send me my books if you have read them. 
Nous avons vu ces dames, et nous leur avons parle, 
We have seen those ladies, and we have spoken to them. 
Regardez les etoffes que j'ai achetees, 
Look at the stuff which I have bought. 

Rule 3. When the past participle is joined with the verb 
etre, either in the passive voice or in the compound tenses of 

What is the general rule of the past participle ?— How does it form its femi- 
nine and plural ? — What is said of the past participle when used without an aux- 
Iillary ? — What is the rule on the agreement of the past participle when it comes 
after the verb avoir J— What is the rule concerning the agreement of the past 
participle after the verb etre'/— With what does it agree after etre? 



324 PARTICIPLES. 

a neuter verb, it always agrees with the nominative of the 
verb. 
Ex. : Elle est charmce de vous voir, She is overjoyed to see you. 
lis sont venus ce matin, They came this morning. 

Remark. With pronominal verbs, the verb etre which is 
used iu their compound tenses, has, upon close examination, 
the sense of the verb avoir. The past participle of a prono- 
minal verb is therefore used as it would be after the verb avoir ; 
and when the verb has a direct objective placed after the past 
participle, that participle remains invariable, while it agrees 
with its direct objective, if that objective, whether it be noun 
or pronoun, is placed before the past participle. 

Ex. : Nous nous sommes habillcs, We have dressed ourselves. 

lis se sont battus, They have fought. 

Eile s'est LAve les mains, She has washed her hands. 

Nous nous sommes ecRiT des We have written letters to 
lettres, each other. 

The above rule is applicable both to reflective and reciprocal 
verbs, as shown by the above examples. But it will be advi- 
sable for the learner to see what is said on this subject, pages 
123, 124 and 125. 

Remark. The past participle agrees with the pronoun used 
as an objective to pronominal verbs, except with the following 
verbs, with which this pronoun is, in French, an objective in- 
direct. Se plaire, se complaire, to take pleasure ; se deplaire, 
to displease each other ; se parler, to speak to each other ; se 
succeder, to succeed each other; se nuire, to injure one ano- 
ther ; se rappeler, to remember. 

Elle s'est repentie, She has repented. 

Nous nous sommes parlc, We have spoken to each other. 

lis se sont nui, They have injured each other. 

These are the fundamental rules on the agreement of the participle 
past, which seem so difficult to foreigners. It is true that they are not 
always applied as easily as in the above examples ; but all difficulties 
on this subject will be explained after the following exercise. 

EXERCISE. 

The first twenty verbs written like joindre, No. 16, list, page 147. 

I ran after the strawberry girl just now, and I reached her as she 
was going to sell her last basket. My master asked for the candle 
when 1 had extinguished it. I fear lest he should infringe the laws es- 
tablished in the country, and should incur the penalty fixed by the 
judges. The verses that you have composed for me are replete with 

What are the instances in which the past, participle, which comes after etre, 
agrees with its objective direct?— With what does the past participle agree m 
the compound tenses of a pronominal verb ? 



PARTICIPLES. 325 

grace and eleganee, but I do not deserve the compliments which you 
paid me. I can give you a furnished room, unless you would like bet- 
ter to furnish it for yourself. They are ruined men, if their passion 
for gambling induces them to do such an action. The news received 
by the last packet is very alarming, and my mother is persuaded that 
if I will not go to Europe immediately, I shall lose the property that my 
uncle left me by his will. Have you not admired, as well as I, the 
beautiful pictures that your master has showed to us ? These young 
ladies, instead of writing the verbs that I had given them yesterday 
went to the Battery this morning ; but they will be punished. I know 
that they have repented ; but repentance does not repair the faults that 
a person has committed ; it only renders them less odious. My chil- 
dren went to church this afternoon, and sat in your pew. They placed 
themselves there because the door was open, and they were persuaded 
that you would not blame them. Those two ladies met each other in 
the street this morning. They conversed for several hours, and paid 
each other so many compliments that I laughed after having left them. 
"We pleased each other as soon as we were introduced to one another. 
The different events which succeeded one another, have changed the 
lace of affairs. 

CASES IN WHICH THE AGREEMENT OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE MIGHT 
PRESENT SOME DIFFICULTY. 

When the past participle, preceded by an objective direct, is 
immediately followed by a verb in the infinitive mood, the learn- 
er must be aware that this objective direct may be either that 
of the participle or of the following verb. 

In the former instance, there is no doubt that the participle 
must agree with the substantive, which is its objective direct, 
but in the latter, the participle, having no objective remains in- 
variable. This must not be considered as a new difficulty, as 
it is a mere illustration of the general rule. 
Conformably to this I will say, 

La demoiselle que j'ai entendue chanter, 
The young lady whom I heard sing. 
La chanson que j'ai entendu chanter, 
The song that I heard sung. 

This subject is very closely connected with the difficulty ex- 
plained page 285, Rule 7, and page 287, Rule 1, and in order 
to explain these sentences better, it must be remembered that 
when the substantive is the objective of the participle, it is also 
the agent of the action expressed by the infinitive. Thus, in 
the first of these two examples, 1 have heard a young lady 
who was singing, the relative que is the objective of the parti- 
ciple past, and qui, understood, is the nominative of the verb 

What are the verbs after which the past participle remains invariable ? — What 
"is the reason of that 1— What is said of the past participle followed by an infini- 
tive 1 — When must it agree 1 

28 



326 PARTICIPLES. 

to sing ; but in the second example, / have heard some person 
winging the song, but not the song that was singing. 

Then the relative que, being the objective of the infinitive 
sing, the participle must remain invariable. 

Remark 1. In some circumstances the participle may de- 
termine the sense of the sentence. 

For instance, if the following sentence were to be translated 
into English, Je les ai vus applaudir, the scholar knows, by 
the agreement of the participle with les, that this pronoun is the 
objective of the participle vus, and thus the agent of the infini- 
tive applaudir. Therefore, he translates this sentence by / 
saw them applauding. 

If the sentence had been, Je les ai vu applaudir, as vu does 
not agree with les, this pronoun would be the objective of the 
following infinitive, and this phrase would mean, / saw some 
person applauding them, I saw them applauded. 

Remark % The French verb laisser means, to suffer, to 
permit, to let. Some grammarians pretend that, as it is used 
as an auxiliary, its past participle is always invariable ; but an 
opinion which seems to be adopted by the best grammarians, 
is, that this participle follows the same rules as the past par- 
ticiples vu and entendu, and agrees in the same circumstances 
With its objective. 

Thus, you will say of pigeons that you let eat, 
Je les ai laisses manger. 
But if you suffered them to be eaten, 

Je les ai laisse manger. 

Remark 3. It is not the same with the past parti ciplefait. 
This never agrees with the preceding substantive, as it forms 
but one sense with the following infinitive. 

Ex. : Je les ai fait venir, I made them come. 

It is impossible to understand in this sentence that you have 
made the persons. This participle fait cannot, without impro- 
priety, be separated from the following verb, and for that rea- 
son, being considered as a part of this verb, remains invariable. 

Remark 4. Sometimes the infinitive, which comes after a 
participle, is understood, but the participle is still invariable, 
as the preceding substantive cannot be considered as its objec- 
tive. 



When ought the past participle to remain invariable ?— Explain what is said 
of the past participle laisse and fait. — What is to be observed with regard to a 
past participle, after which an infinitive is understood? 



PARTICIPLES. 327 

Ex. : Je lui ai rendu tous les services que j'ai pu, 
I rendered him all the services I could, 

N. B. Before going on with this difficulty, it will be advisable to write the 
following exercise. 

EXERCISE. 

The rest of the verbs written like joindre. 

Those grapes that 1 saw you buying at market this morning, I saw- 
fall from the vine. The birds which I understand that you have eaten,. 
I saw stolen from a countryman, yesterday. I saw them fly from their 
cage, and I saw them killed by the man who sold them to you. I heard 
you cry this morning, miss ; what was the cause of it 1 Did you not 
hear me scolded ? They feigned friendship for me, and if they had seen 
me cheated by every body, they would have suffered me to be ruined, 
I saw those portraits painted, for I used to stay here when the painter 
came. I heard them pity the soldiers who had been condemned by the 
court-martial, I went to the dyer's shop this morning, and made him 
dye again the apron which he had spoiled before. Those horses are 
exhausted, because you did not let them eat sufficiently this morning. 
You have suffered me to be cheated without warning me. 

Rule 1. When the participle is followed by a verb con- 
nected with it by the conjunction que, this participle is invari^ 
able, as the preceding objective is that of the following verb, 
and not of the participle. 

Ex.: La lettre que j'ai PResuMe que vous aviez re^ue, 
The letter which I presumed that you had received. 

Rule 2. It will be recollected that, according to the rule, 
page 243, on the French pronoun le, this pronoun answers for 
so or that. Then, when the pronoun le or l\ used in a French 
sentence with this signification, is followed by a past partici- 
ple, this past participle remains invariable. 

Ex. : Elle n'est pas aussi belle que je l'avais imagine^ 
She is not so handsome as I had imagined. 

Rule 3. If the past participle have for its direct objective 
the pronoun en, as explained, page 234. this participle 
will remain invariable, as the word en has by itself neither 
gender nor number. 

Ex. : Vous m'avez oflfert des fleurs ; j'en ai pris, 
You offered me flowers; I took some. 



How is the past participle used when connected with a following verb by the 
injunction que l~ How when relating to le ?— How when relating to en? 



conjunction que 



328 PARTICIPLES. 

But if en be an indirect objective, the participle has nothing 
to do with it, because the past participle always agrees with 
the direct objective. 

Ex. : Votre frere m'a ecrit ; lisez les lettres que j'en ai revues, 

Your brother has written to me ; read the letters which I have 
received from him. 

Rule 4. Should the substantive, which is the objective to 
the participle, be preceded by the interrogative adverbs or pro- 
nouns, Combien de, que de,,quel, quelle, &c, the participle 
would still agree with the substantive, and not with these 
words. 

Ex. : Combien de volumes avez-vous lus ? 
How many volumes have you read ? 

Rule 5. The past participle of a verb, either impersonal, or 
used impersonally, cannot in any manner agree with any sub- 
stantive, as these verbs express only an action, and have no 
objective. 

Ex. : La pluie qu'il a fait, The rain that fell, 

II s'est rassemble une foule de gens armes s 
Ji crowd of armed men have assembled. 

RuIe 6. Sometimes que is used to represent both a relative 
pronoun and a preposition governing it. The past participle 
cannot 3 of course, in these phrases agree with this que. 

Ex. : Les jours qu'il a vecu, 

The days during which he has lived. 

Que is here used instead of pendant lesquels, and besides, 
vecu being the participle of a neuter verb, cannot have any 
direct objective. 

N. B. Some remarks will be made on the past participle^, 
when coming after le peu de, in the chapter of adverbs. - 

EXERCISE. 

(l All the verbs of the third list of the fourth conjugation, page 148. 

You shall close, in spite of yourself, the lots of ground that I am now 
certain that you possess. She is not as good as I had thought. We 
are as honest as you have said. You have said that I have no books, 
but I bought many this morning. That man had many friends, but he 
has lost several, because he did not know how to appreciate the ser- 
vices that he had received from them. How many men have you^en^ 

How when it. relates to a word preceded by combien, quel, &c. ?— Does the.pas$ 
participle of an impersonal verb ever vary 1 — What are the instances in wSicii, 
a past participle, preceded by the relative que, does not agree with i,t 1 



PREPOSITIONS. 329 

gaged? How many exercises have you written? What lesson has 
she recited ? What verbs have you learned ? A number of poor peo- 
ple presented themselves at the door of the dispensary this morning, 
and asked for remedies against the prevailing epidemic. I heard the 
asses bray during the week I spent in the country. You will boil a 
Jew dolpnins, and you will fry the rest, for we have caught a great 
number. ° fe 



CHAPTER VII. 
OF THE PREPOSITION. 

A definition of that part of speech will be found page 150, 

REMARKS ON SOME PREPOSITIONS. 

The French preposition chez signifies, at the house of, and 
corresponds to at followed by the possessive case. 

Ex. : Chez le president, \ H ®* ^ / 5* P resident ' 

x ( Jit the presidents. 

Followed by a personal pronoun, it corresponds to at, fol- 
lowed by a possessive adjective and the word house. 

Ex. : Chez rnoi, chez lui, At my house, at his house. 

As the French have no word to express home, they use the 
preposition chez, followed by a personal pronoun. 

Ex. : Allez chez vous, Go home, 

Chez sometimes relates to the character of a person, and 
means in. 

Ex. : Cette vertu est chez vous un vice,. 
This virtue is a vice in you. 

Chez also stands for amongst. 

Ex.: Apres avoir vecu quelque temps chez les Mollachs,. 
•After having lived for some time among the Mollachs. 

Durant, pendant, during. The use of pendant is more 
frequent than that of durant, as durant marks the whole du- 
ration of the time expressed by its objective, while pendant 
relates only to the part of that time during which the action 
spoken of took place. 

What does the preposition chez signify 1— How is the word home translated in- 
to French 1— What does chez signify besides ?— What is the difference between 
pendant and durant ? 

28* 



330 PREPOSITIONS. 

Dans and en, both answering to in, must not be con- 
founded. 

En, having a vague and undeterniinate sense, is not follow- 
ed by an article. If we except the cases in which this prepo- 
sition is used before the names of kingdoms, empires, &c, and 
before the names of the months, it generally forms with the 
words to which it is joined, a kind of adjective or adverb. 



Ex. : Etre en bonne sante, 
Vin en bouteilles, 
Etre en paix, 
En vain, 
En effet, 
En verite, 


To be in good health. 

Bottled wine. 

To be in peace. 

In vain. 

In fact. 

Indeed. 


Yet we see en followed by 
wing, viz. 


an article in the two cases fo!~ 


En l'annee mil huit cent, &c. 
En Pair, 


In the year 1 800, &c. 
In the air. 



Dans is placed before nouns that are determined ; as 7 
Dans ma chambre, In my room. 

Dans and en are* sometimes opposed to each other, to ex- 
press different relations. 

For instance coton en holies, signifies, cotton put up in 
bales, as an article of commerce ; vin en bouteilles, bottled 
wine. These words, thus used, convey an idea of distinction 
between cotton in bales, and all other manners of putting up 
cotton; vin en bouteilles, signifies the manner in which the 
wine is preserved, offered for sale, &c. This is a permanent 
state of the goods. Du coton dans des sacs, du vin dans 
des bouteilles, would signify, that the cotton has been put' in 
bags, or the wine in bottles, for some particular purposes, and 
would not convey the idea of a permanent situation. 

Dans, connected with expressions of time, signifies the time 
that will elapse between the actual period and that at which 
an action will commence. En expresses the time that will 
pass between the beginning and the end of the action. 

Ex. : J'irai a Boston dans trois jours, 

Three ddys hence I will go to Boston. 

J'irai a Boston en trois jours, 

I will be three days going to Boston. 

En placed between two nouns can be translated as follows: 

Ex. : D'erreur en erreur, From an error to another. 

_ ^fe- ■ r- 1 __ *. 

What is the difference between dans and en? — What is the difference between 
tlie leaning of dans and that of en before expressions of time ? 



PREPOSITIONS. 331 

In some instances it is a matter of choice to use dans with 
the article, or en without. 

Ex. : Dans l'£te, or en ete, tn summer. 

In, before the word manner, and whenever its place can be 
supplied by with, is expressed in French by de. 

Ex. : In this manner, De cette maniere. 

In a tender voice, D'uhe voix tendre. 

It is also in some peculiar expressions, supplied by various 
prepositions. 

Ex. : Jamais de ma vie, Never in my life. 

Rien au monde, Nothing in the ivorld* 

N. B. See, besides, what was said on some peculiar prepositions, 
page 174, and on the prepositions from, about, with f and by, page 150. 

Remark. Some prepositions may not only bejused as such,, 
but also as adverbs or conjunctions, according to the construc- 
tion of the phrase. The learner is requested not to confound 
these parts of speech. For this purpose, he may either con- 
sult a dictionary, or apply the explanations that have been 
given in the respective chapters. 

Before proceeding with this subject, the following exercise must be 
written. 

EXERCISE. 

All the irregular verbs have now been studied by the learner, and will be 
employed promiscuously in the following exercises. 

Shall we go to your house to-day, or will you come to ours ? Where 
is your master ? He is at his father's, or- at the tailor's. In him it is 
goodness, but it is weakness in you. Theft was allowed amongst the 
Spartans. The armies were in view. The enemy were in a large 
field, and we were in a meadow. As it was in winter, the officers 
were in their tents, and we were in doubt whether we should com- 
mence fighting or not. You could not find in the world a more covet- 
ous man. Did you ever see, in your life, such a queer character ? I 
did that during your absence^ Tea was very dear during the war , 
but it fell when the peace was concluded. It was in December, in the 
year fifteen hundred and twenty-five. I cannot see the fire-works, be- 
cause you are directly before me. I am before you because I came 
before you, and if you are behind me it is your own fault. Why did 
you come after me ? The prisoner was here before eleven o'clock, and 
the judges came after five o'clock. Your book is on the shelf. I 
thought that it was under. No, Sir, it is on it ; it is placed under 



Can you mention any instances in which in is not translated into French, 
either by dans or en 1 



332 



PREPOSITIONS. 



your dictionary, If you have any letters, give them to me; for I will 
sail for Havre ten days hence. I expect I shall be thirty days going 
to Gtuebec. I was on good terms with him ; but when he commenced 
acting in that manner^ I ceased visiting him f 



REMARKS ON SOME PREPOSITIONS. 



There are prepositions which are compounded of several 
words. 

Some require the preposition de to come after them. They 
are principally those which are followed in English by of t 
from, or with, and those which follow : 



Autour de, 
aupres de, } 
pres de, > 
proche de 3 

a cote de, 

a fleur de, 

a Pegard de, 



a moins de, 

au dehors de, 

a Pepreuve de, proof against. 



about, round, 

near, nigh, by, 

beside, by, 
close to, 
even with, 
with regard to, 
concerning, 
under, for 
less than, 
out without. 



au dessus de, 

au dessous de, 

au devant de, 
au derriere de, 
au dedans de, 
a Pinsu de, 
au travers de, 

aux environs de, 

le long de, 

vis-a-vis de, 



above, over. 

upon. 

under, below, 

underneath. 

before. 

behind. 

loithin. 

unknown to., 

through. 

round about. 

along, 
opposite to. 
over against 



The following prepositions require a to come after them. 

Conformement a, according, pursuant. 

4 " \ > till, until, even to. as far as. 
jusques a, ) ' ' ' J 

quanta, as for, as to. 

All the other prepositions are directly followed by the noun y 
without de and a, such as selon, according to. 

OF THE ARTICLES AFTER PREPOSITIONS. 

N. B. See what was said on this subject, pages 176 and ,177. 

Three prepositions, viz. mns, avec, and par, require par- 
ticular attention. 

Sans always excludes the article before a substantive used 
in a partitive sense, but requires the definite le, la, les, before 
nouns in a general sense, or when the is used in English. 

By analogy to the exception, page 168, a noun having a par- 
titive sense, and qualified by an adjective requires, although 



Are there prepositions compounded of several words ?— What are those 
which require de to come after them ?— What are those that are followed by a t 
—What is remarked concerning sans? 



PREPOSITIONS. 333 

governed by sans, to be determined by the indefinite article 
un or une, in the singular, and in the plural by the preposi- 
tion ^representing the partitive article, on account of the 
negative signification of sans. 

Ex. : Sans une grande perte, Without great loss. 

N. B. Sans has sometimes, in French, the sense of were it 
not for. 

Ex. : Combien d'arts seraient inconnus sans le fer, 

How many arts would be unknown were it not for iron. 
II mourut sans enfans, He died without children. 

Sans les officiers, Without the officers. 

It is evident, in the former example, that sans excludes iron 
in general, and that sans lefer signifies, if there were no such 
thing as iron in the world. 

In the latter phrase, sans enfans means without any chil- 
dren. 

Avec rejects the partitive article only when it is prefixed to 
substantives expressing moral qualities, as it can then be con- 
sidered as an adverb \ but it is always required before nouns 
of sensible objects/ 

Ex.: Avec honneur, With honour. 

Avec de l'argent, With money. 

Par is followed by the article when it means, by means of 
or through, and also when an article is used after it in English. 

It rejects the article when it is used with the noun that fol- 
lows it, as a modification to the verb, or when it is followed by 
a noun used in a partitive sense. 

Ex.: II l'obtiendra par la douceur, 

He will obtain it through mildness^ 
lis mouraient par milliers, 
They died by thousands. 

EXERCISE. 

We shall walk round the meadow. I wrote my letter on the table 
which is close by you. Sit down by me. Cut that sorrel even with, 
the ground. I bought it at the rate of five shillings a pound. With 
regard to what you say, he disbelieves it. She lives opposite to N's 
garden. They planted a large tree before the house, I can do no- 
thing for want of money. A candid and sincere man always speaks 
and acts according to what he thinks. I waited for you till five o'clock. 
You praised him to the very skies. I went as far as Quebec; and I 
travelled along the river. You did it without the knowledge of your 



Wilrt is remarked concerning Avec?— Par? 



33 4 PREPOSITIONS. 

parents. I am without a servant, and I refused to take one who came 
without recommendations. How could we live without hope, that pre- 
cious blessing. He is a prisoner and lives without hope. He always 
acts with prudence. I always see him with children, and never with 
men. She answered with passion, and spoke with impudence. It 
would be very difficult to trade, were it not for money. The wind 
made the apples fall from the trees, and we picked them up by 
b ushels. 

OBSERVATIONS ON SOME ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS. 

Above is rendered by plus de, when preceding a noun ex- 
pressing time, so as to signify more than, or longer than. 

Ex. : Le combat dura plus de deux heures, 
The fight lasted above two hours. 

At is expressed by de, after nouns or verbs, denoting anger , 
derision, joy, surprise, <fyc. 

Ex. : II se moque de vous, He laughs at you. 

By ) preceding a noun oiiveight or measure, and the words, 
day, week, month, or year } is translated by a. 

Ex. : J'ache' te a la livre, I buy by the pound. 

Jn, after words denoting pain, hurting, or wounding, and 
preceding one of the possessive adjectives in conjunction with 
any part of the body, is translated by a, and the possessive 
adjective is left out. 

Ex. : II fut blesse au bras, He was ivounded in his arm. 

In, when it precedes a noun relating to time, is not express- 
ed in French. 

Ex. : J'etais la le soir, I was there in the evening. 

For, when it signifies during, must be translated by du- 
rant or pendant. 

Ex. : Pendant trois jours, For three days. 

Such expressions as this,— of an afternoon,— axe translated 
as follows : — dans Vapres-midi. 

On, or upon, after verbs meaning to live, to depend, to sub- 
sist, is rendered by de. 

It is not expressed before the names of the months and of 
the days of the week, as was said before. 



How is above translated into French when it signifies more than ?— When is at 
translated by de ?— When is by translated by a?— When is in translated by a?— 
When is this preposition omitted in French ?— What is said of for ?— Of upon? 



PREPOSITIONS. 335 

Nous vivons de racines, We live upon roots. 

Over, expressing the end of an action, is rendered by the 
verbs Jinir, passer, achevcr. 

Gluand la pluie fat passee, When the rain was over. 

N. B. Several prepositions, forming a sort of adverb, with 
the substantives which they govern, are not followed by an 
article. (See the Rule 4th, page 176.) 

EXERCISE. 

We waited for him above two months, and when we saw that win- 
ter was approaching, we departed. We were above twenty persons in 
the boat, and we had a long passage. We lived for one week on bread 
and cheese. The captain laughed at us. We were surprised at such 
conduct, and we thought that it was very unpleasant to depend on such 
a person. He purchased his coffee by the barrel, and now he sells it by 
the pound. When the bad weather was over, he played on his flute, 
and amused us during the whole evening. I have a pain in my shoul- 
der, and I cannot put on my coat. 

on the prepositions de y a and pour. 

The use of these prepositions before an infinitive is always 
ti subject of difficulty for foreigners. 

It must be observed that the preposition that precedes an 
infinitive in French, is always governed by the preceding 
word, whether an adjective or a verb. The preposition to, 
which necessarily precedes the English infinitive, is compre- 
hended in the single word, which is used to express the French 
infinitive. 

This being understood, we shall have to determine the cir- 
cumstances in which the French infinitive is to be preceded by 
one of these three prepositions. 

N. B. We shall not here speak of the instances in which one of these 
prepositions forms together with the preceding and following words, a 
kind of gallicism, as the Third Part of this work is specially devoted 
to the explanation of that. 

Rule. When the French infinitive is represented in Eng- 
lish by a present participle, the preposition which is prefixed 
to that participle, in English, must precede trie infinitive in 
French. 

N. B, See what was said on this subject, page 150. 

Ex. : Au lieu de faire, Instead of doing. 

Of over? — What is to be observed when an English present participle is pre- 
ceded by a preposition ? 



336 PREPOSITIONS. 

If the verb be in the infinitive in English, the following rules 

m Rule L^IHhe verb denote the end of a preceding action, 
go that it mbht be used with the words in order to, with a 
view to, it is then preceded by the preposition pour. 

Ex. : II a fait cela pour me tromper, 

He did that to cheat me. (in order to.) 

Rule 2. The infinitive is also preceded by pour when it 
follows an adjective, modified by an adverb or expression oi 
quantity,and likewise after the verb suffire, to suffice 5 and me 
adjective siiffisant, sufficient. 

Ex. : Etes-vous assez simple pour faire cela ? 
Are you simple enough to do that ? 

Rule 3. When the infinitive is preceded by an adjective, the 
learner should ascertain whether the adjective requires to be 
followed by & or de. For this purpose, he must either try the 
same adjective before a noun, or refer to the list, page 215. 
Ex. : Je suis charme de vous voir, I am glad to see you. 
I use de, because glad, before a noun or pronoun, is followed by of, 
&s, I am glad of that. 

Ex. : II etait impatient de vous parler, 
He was impatient to speak to you. 

■ ■ Because impatient requires to be followed by de. 

Rule 4. An infinitive governed by the preposition a, which 
connects it with a preceding noun or pronoun, has a passive 
signification. The same construction occurs sometimes m 
English. 

Ex • Je voiis donne cela a faire, I give you that to do (to be done.) 
C'est un homme a plaindre, He is a man to be pitted. 
acontinuer, To be continued. 

a sometimes stands for on. 

Ex. : On croirait a vous entendre, One would believe on hearing you. 

Rule 5 The French consider a verb, which is the object of 
the action expressed by a verb that precedes it, as the objec^ 
tive of the first verb. ni . W 

Some verbs require to be connected by a preposition, with 
the verb that follows them; other verbs require no preposition. 

When is pour placed before an infinitive T-Is there not another instance ? 
-What preposition must precede an infinitive which follows an adjective ?- 
What do the French say of two verbs, the second of which is the object of the 
action expressed by the first ? 



of; 



337 



to deny 

to observe 

to dare 

to hear 

to appear 

to think 

to be able 

to pretend 

to prefer 

to protest 

to publish 

to remember 

to report 

to acknowledge 

to look at 

to know 

to seem 

to feel 

to icish 

to maintain 

to be better 

to come 

to see 

to be willing 

Ex. : Je vais voir votre oncle, / am going to see your uncle. 

Dire when it signifies to say, is not followed by any preposi- 
sition before an infinitive. (See Rule 3, page 285.) 
Ex. : II dit Pavoir, He says that he has it. 

Remark. The conjunction and is not expressed in French 
after verbs of motion, 

Ex. : Allez lui parler, Go and speak to him* 

Rule 5. The verb which comes after another, being con- 
sidered as its objective, the preposition de will be prefixed to it, 
if this second verb be objective direct, and d, if it be objective 
indirect. 

Ex. : Je vous permets d'aller, I permit you to go. 
Because the thing permitted is to go, which then may be con- 
sidered an objective direct. 

Je vous invite a sortir, I invite you to go out. 
Because here you is the objective direct, as being the person 
invited. 







^REPOSITIONS, 


<J1 list of the verbs which 


require 


s no preposition 


Affirmer 


to affirm 




nier 


aimer mieux 


to prefer 




observer 


aller 


to go 




oser 


apercevoir 


to perceive 




ouir 


assurer 


to assure 




paraitre 


avouer 


to confess 




penser 


compter 


to think 




pouvoir 


confesser 


to confess 




pretendre 


courir 


to run 




prefe"rer 


croire 


to believe 




protester 


daigner 


to deign 




publier 


declarer 


to declare 




se rappeier 


de poser 


to bear witness 


rap porter 


desirer 


to wish 




reconnaitre 


devoir 


to owe 




regard er 


ecouter 


to listen to 




savoir 


entendre 


to hear 




sembler 


envoy er 


to send 




sentir 


esperer 


to hope 




souhaiter 


faire 


io make 




soutenir 


falloir 


to he necessary 


valoir misux 


s'imaginer 


io imagine 




venir 


laisser 


to allow , to 


suffer 


voir 


mener 


to lead 




vouloir 



What are the verbs which are joined to infinitives without prepositions-? — 
— What are those verbs which require the preposition de ?— When does a verb 
require to be joined to another by the preposition a ? 

29 



338 



PREPOSITIONS. 



It is the same after reflective verbs. 

Je me propose de vous voir, I propose to see you. 

Je me soumets a vous obeir, I submit- myself to obey you. 

§T* B. The application of this rule is not easy for an English scho* 
tar, as this distinction is not made in the English language ; yet it will 
be easy to understand the above rule, if it is tried to ascertain whether 
the action expressed by the infinitive, comes under the government of the 
preceding verb or not. In the latter instance, the person will be the di- 
rect objective, and the verb, being considered as an indirect objective, 
should be preceded by a ; in the former instance, the verb being con- 
sidered a direct objective, will be preceded by de ; the person will be 
governed by the preposition a. 

In the former of the above two phrases, viz : Je vous permets (Poller ; 
je vous invite a sortir; it is not difficult to see that a thing is permitted •• 
that thing, although expressed by a verb, will be the direct objective,. 
and the person will be governed by the preposition a. In the second 
example, a thing cannot be invited, the person is then the direct objec- 
tive, and the verb the indirect. 

Remark. There are many English verbs, which, when pla- 
ced before a noun or pronoun, are followed by a preposition^ 
which is omitted when the same verbs are followed by an infi- 
nitive. The French infinitives are generally preceded by the 
French preposition, which corresponds to that used in English 
before a noun. The learner should therefore always try to as- 
certain what that preposition is, and to express it in French 
before the verb in the infinitive . 

Ex.: Je consentis a levoir, I agreed to see him. 

Because to agree is followed by to, when its objective is a noun 
or pronoun, as, / agree to it. 

But as this rule has exceptions, and as some of the verbs 
might yet present difficulties, it is thought best to place here 
severaflists under the eyes of the learner. 

A list of verbs which have the person for indirect objective, and, the thing for 
direct objective, besides those which correspond in the tioo languages. 



Annoncer 


to announce . 


defendre 


to forbid 


apprendre 


to teach 


demander 


to ask 


arracher 


to pull 


dire 


to tell 


cacher 


to hide 


enlever 


to take away 


commander 


to command 


envier 


to envy 


conseilier 


to advise 


emporter 


to carry away 


couper 


to cut 


emprunter 


to borroio 



Are the French, verbs sometimes followed by the same preposition as the Eng- 
lish 1 — What are those to which the name of the tiling is a direct objective, and 
the name of the person an indirect objective ? 





PREPOSITIONS. 




enseigner 


to teach 


procurer 


to get for 


fournir 


to supply with 


promettre 


to promise 


inspirer 


to inspire 


proposer 


to propose 


interdire 


to interdict 


ravir 


to lorest 


ordonner 


to order 


recommander 


to recommend 


oter 


to take off 


refuser 


to refuse 


pardonner 


to pardon 


re pond re 


to ansioer 


perraettre 


to permit 


reprocher 


to reproach 


pre dire 


to foretell 


soustraire 


to draw away 


prendre 


to take 


voler 


to steal. 


prescrire 


to prescribe 






Ex. : «Te leur 


dirai mon secret- 


/ will tell them my secret. 


Je lui ordonnai de sortir, 


I ordered him to go out. 



339 



A list of all verbs lohich require the preposition de before an infinitive t be- 
sides those of the above list. 



accuser de 
s'anliger de 
apprehender de 
avertir de 
aviser de 
blamer de 
cesser de 
charger de 
-conjurer de 
convaincre de 
convenir de 
s'attrister de 

s'aviser de < 

se defendre de 
defier de 
se desesperer de 
se desoler de 
detourner de 
discontinuerde 
disconvenir de 
se dispenser de 
dissuader de 
douter de 
s'efTorcer de 
excuser de 
feliciter de 
se hasarder de 



to accuse 

to grieve at 

to apprehend 

to w am 

to advise 

to blame 

to cease 

to charge 

to entreat 

to convince 

to agree 

to be grieved at 

to take into one's 

head 
to decline 
to challenge 
to despair # 
to rave at 
to dissuade 
to discontinue 
to deny 
to forbear 
to dissuade 
to doubt 
to endeavour 
to excuse 
to congratidate 
to venture 

And all other verbs corresponding 
with, 



se hater de 
jouir de 
louer de 
manquer de 
menacer de 
se passer de 
se piquer de 
plaindre de 
pressei* de 
prier de 
punir de 
se rebuter de 
se re jouir de 
remercier de 
se repentir de 



to hasten 

to enjoy 

to praise for 

to fail 

to threaten 

to go without 

to pretend 

to pity for 

to urge, 

to desire 

to punish 

to be discouraged at 

to rejoice at 

to thank 

to repent 



se ressouvenir de to remember 
rougir de to blush at 

se scandaliserde to be offended at 
sommer de to summon 

se soucier de to care for 
souffrir de to suffer 

soupc;onnerde to suspect 
se souvenir de to remember 
suffire de (imp.) to suffice 
supplier de to entreat 

tacher de to try 

trembler de to tremble 

to English verbs followed by of from 
or about. 



Which a?e the verbs which require the preposition de before an infinitive 1 



340 



PREPOSITIONS. 



A list of verbs which require the preposition a before an infinitive, besides 
those which follow the general rule. 



Aimer a 
apprendre a 
avoir a 
balancer a 
chercher a 
condescendre a 
consister a 
conspirer a 
contribuer a 
demander a 

demeurer a < 

disposer a 
donner a 



to like 

to learn 

to have 

to hesitate 

to try 

to condescend to 

to consist of 

to agree together 

to eo7itribute to 

to ask 

to put too much 

time in 
to prepare 
to give 



engager a 
exceller a 
exhorter a 
hesiter a 
montrer a 
parvenir a 
penser a 
perseverer a 
persister a 
renoncer a 
songer a 
tarder a 
travailler a 



to prevail upon 
to excel in 
to exhort 
to hesitate 
to show 
to succeed in 
to think of 
to persevere in 
to persist in 
to renounce 
to think of 
to long 
to work 



Etre, to be, when followed by a, will be found in the gallicisms. 

Remark. Some verbs are followed by de or a, before a® 
infinitive, according either to their sense, or to the taste of the 
person who uses the phrase. 



to commence, (a thing that continues.) 
to commence, (a thing, the continuation 
of which is not certain.) 
to continue, (an uninterrupted action.) 
to continue, (at different periods.) 
S'empresser a, or de to hasten, 
Forcer a, or de to force 



Commencer a, 
Commencer de, 

Continue* a 

Condnuer de, 
Convier a, or de to invite 

Obliger a, or de to oblige 

Contraindre a, or de to constrain 

Rule 7. Some verbs require to be followed by the preposi- 
tion de, and others by a, when they come before nouns. 

Remark. The greatest part of the verbs of the above lists, admit of 
a direct objective, and require, when joined with other nouns, the same 
preposition that they have before verbs. 

Ex. : Je vous accuse de cette faute, 
I accuse you of that fault. 

But those which always require the preposition, both before verbs and 
nouns, and which therefore do not admit of a direct objective, will be 
repeated in the following list. 



Which are those which require the preposition a ? 
lowed either by de ox a ? 



-Those which may be fo^ 



PREPOSITIONS. 



fti 



A list of verbs which require, before nouns, prepositions which do not cor- 
respond with the English. 



' to abuse, to make a 

bad use of 
to grieve for 
to approach (act.int 
to be grieved at 
to agree upon 
to mistrust 
to resign 
to give over 
to deny 
to doubt 

to congratulate on 
to be exasperated at 
to inquire after 
to enjoy 
to praise for 
to slander 



to mistrust 

to go without 

to set up for 

to profit by 

to be discouraged at 

to thank for 

to recant 



se mefter de 
s e passer de 
se piquer de 
.profiter de 
se rebuter de 
remercier de 
se retracter de 

se ressouvenir de to remember 
rougir de to blush at 

se saisir de to seize upon 

sescandaliserde to be offended at 
se servir de to use 

se soucier de to care for 
souffrir de to suffer by 

se souvenir de to remember 



subsister de 
user de 



Abuser de 

s'afniger de 
approcherde 
s'attrister de 
convenir de 
se defier de 
se demettre de 
se desister de 
disconvenir de 
douter de 
feliciter de 
s'indigner de 
e'informer de 
jouir de 
louer de 
medire de 

Compatir a 
contrevenir a 
convenir a 
deplairea 
deroger a 
desobeir a 
echapper a 
exceller a 
nlanquer a 
nuire a 
obeir a 
obvier a 
pardonner a 
parveni^a 
penser £f 

Remark 1. When the objective to the preposition a is a per- 
sonal pronoun, this pronoun is blended with the preposition, 
and used with the verb, according to the list and rules, pages 
87 and 88. 

With regard to the verbs penser a and songer d, see the 
Remark, page 223. 

Remark 2. Some verbs are used with or without the pre- 
position a before a noun. They are — 

persuader ] to persmde . 

persuader a ) J 

satisfaire to satisfy 

satisfairea to fulfil 



to sympathize for 

to infringe 

to suit 

to displease 

to derogate from 

to disobey 

to escape 

to excel in 

to fail in 

to prejudice 

to obey 

to obviate 

to pardon 

to attain * 

to think of 



plaire a 
pourvoir a 
preiuder a 
proeeder a 
remedier a 
resister a 
ressembler a 
songer a 
subvenir a 
succeder a 
suffire a 
survivre a 
tirer a 
travailier a 



to live upon 
to use 

to please 

to provide for 

to prelude 

to set about 

to remedy 

to resist 

to look like 

to think of 

to relieve 

to succeed 

to be sufficient for 

to survive 

to shoot, to fire at 

to work about 



applaudir 
applaudir a 
msulter 
insulter a 



to applaud 
to approve of 
to insult 
to insult over 



What are the verbs which required before a noun?— Thosd which require d ? 
29* 



34*' PREPOSITIONS. 

Remark 3. Other verbs take either the preposition a or de f 
as follows: — 

echappera \ to escape (act. tmn. manquer a to fail in 

11 (to be concealed jrom manquer de to be in xcant of 

echapper de to escape from rever a to think of 

jouer a to play (any game) r&ver de to dream of 

jouierde \ to play (on any in- 

( strument) 

Rule 8. De represents the English preposition by, after 
several adjectives derived from verbs, unless they relate to 
physical actions ; in which case, par is used. 

Ex. : Deteste de Detested by 

Esiime de Esteemed by 

Tue par Killed by 

The substantive joueur is always followed by de, whether 
it is applied to a person w 7 ho plays a game, or to an instru- 
ment-player. 

Ex. : Un joueur de violon, A violin-player. 

Un joueur d'echecs, A chess-player. 

Rule 9. The preposition de is used before an infinitive, after 
que comparative or restrictive. 

• Ex. : II vaut mieux mourir que de vivre ainsi, 
It is better to die than to live so. 

Be is likewise used to connect the verb etre with an infini- 
tive. 

Ex. : Le meilleur serait de rester tranquille, 
The best ivould be to stand still. 

Rule 10. The preposition de is employed in French to con- 
nect a substantive with a following adverb. It has then the 
sense of which is or which are. 

Ex. : L'arbre de devant la porte, The tree before the doer. 

Remark. That locution is used to express in French, Eng- 
lish substantives designating place, used as adjectives to a fol- 
lowing noun. 

Ex.: Lachambredederriere, The back-room. 

Rule 11. The preposition de is likewise used, and has the 
sense of which is or are, before an adjective or a participle 



How is the preposition de used besides the above instances ?— What do suck 
phr,ase.s correspond to ? 



ADVERBS. 343 

which qualifies a substantive, either represented by the pro- 
noun en, or entirely omitted. 

Ex. : Nous en eumes dix de tu£s, 
We had ten killed. 

Rule 12. The prepositions a, de, and en, when prefixed to 
nouns, must be repeated before every one. 

Ex. : J'irai a Paris, a Londres, en France, et en Italie, 
I will go to Paris, London, France, and Italy. 

EXERCISE. 

I prevented him from doing that, because he would have been accused 
of having laughed at those persons. I will do that, to prove to you 
that I am still your friend. That man is too rich to be ruined by that 
loss, but he is too old to carry on his business. Are you capable of do- 
ing such a base action ? He is more proper to fight than to be a law- 
yer. He was pleased with seeing you here. Go and open the door, 
somebody is knocking. I sent him to take a walk in the country. You 
blamed me for having gone there, and you did not advise me to return. 
I forbade them coming to my house. Take away that knife from that 
child. Why do you not teach those ladies to walk better ? Your bro- 
ther borrowed ten dollars from me ; I wish you would ask him for that 
sum. Yes, I will tell him of it. They accused them of keeping wp a 
secret correspondence with the enemy, and hastened to condemn them. 
The king desires you to sing. I will punish you for concealing the 
truth from me. Did you hear him sing ? He was trying to imitate my 
voice, but he could not succeed in doing it. If you like to see him in 
good humour, come now. I was thinking of going to bed. When he 
commences to talk, he does not soon stop. It would be better for you 
to sleep than to remark your brother's faults. I will oblige him to keep 
his peace. You disobey your father, and that does not please your 
master. As he survived his brother, he succeeded him in his business. 
Go to the front parlour and look at the transparencies which are placed 
on the back windows. He has received letters from Madrid and Na- 
ples, and will have to go to Spain and Naples. We had three of our 
men killed, but you had five wounded. He was taken by the consta- 
bles. Did you see the automaton chess-player? 



CHAPTER VIII. 
OF THE ADVERBS. 

A definition of this part of speech has been given, page 151. 
There are adverbs of several sorts ; but those only will be 
spoken of which require some explanation. 



What is said on the preposition de, a, and en ? 



344 ADVERBS. 

Rule 1. Adverbs of quantity used in comparison, are fol- 
lowed by de, when prefixed to a number. 

Ex.; J'en ai plus de trente, I have more than thirty, 

N. B. Remark that the construction many a is not allowed 
in French. 

Ex. : Many a man, Beaucoup d'hommes. 

Such phrases as the following must be reversed : — 

Ex. : Too careless an author, Un auteur trop negligent. 

Remark. The English can give to almost any adjective a 
negative signification, by prefixing to it the privative particle 
un. The French use in for the same purpose, but the use of 
this particle is not so common in the latter language as un is in 
the former. The deficiency is supplied by the adverb peu 
placed before the adjective. 

Ex. : Uncommon, Peu ccmmun. 

Rule 2. There is a difference between the adverbs aussi 
and si, signifying so; and autant and taut, signifying as 
much, as many, and so much, so many. Aussi and autant 
are used in comparison, and si and tant in exclamatory sen- 
tences. The conjunction as, after autant, is expressed by que. 

Ex. : Je suis aussi sage, et j'ai autant d'amis que vous, 
I am as good, and I have as many friends as you. 
\ II est si sage ! il a tant d'amis i 
He is so good ! he has so many friends ! 

Rule 3. The indefinite article which follows, in English, an 
adjective preceded by so,^is placed in French before si. 

Ex. : Une si bonne personne, So good a person. 

Rule 4. Si excludes, in French, all adverbs used in order 
to form the superlative degree of signification. 

Ex. : II est si negligent, He is so very negligent. 

Rule 5. The article the, prefixed to the adverb, more or less, 
is not expressed in French in sentences of this kind. 

Ex. : Plus je vous vois, plus je vous aime, 
The more Iseeyou ) the more Hove you. 



How is the conjunction than expressed before a number?— What is the ditfer- 

Cnce between aussi and si, autant and tant '? — Where is unorune placed in French, 
rtien it corresponds to the indefinite article a or an, placed after the adverb so ? 
Can the French adverb si be followed by tres, or any such adverb? — When is the 
article the omitted in French before an adverb of quantity 1 



ADVERBS. 345 

Should that adverb be followed in English by an adjective, 
or should the article the be followed by an adjective in the 
comparative, that adjective ought to be placed after the verb. 

Ex. : Plus il est riche plus il est avare, 

The richer he is the more covetous he is. 
Plus il est bon moins vous l'aimez, 
The better he is the less you like him. 

Rule 6. When a past participle relates to a substantive, 
preceded by le peu de, answering to the English expression of 
quantity, the little, ibis participle remains invariable, if le peu 
de marks a complete exclusion ; but it agrees with the noun if 
le peu de marks some quantity. 

Le peu d'affection que vous lui avez tcmoignce a suffi,. 
What little affection you haveshoion to him has sufficed. 
Le peu d'affection que vous lui avez TeMoiGNe l'a gu£ri, 
The little affection you have shown to him has cured him. 

Rule 7. How, followed by an adjective in an exclamatory 
sentence, is rendered by comme or que, and immediately fol- 
lowed by the verb, after which comes the adjective. 

Ex. : Comme vous etes bon ! How good you are ! 

Gtu'elle est jolie ! How pretty she is I 

How much, how many, is often rendered by que de, before a 
noun, in exclamatory sentences. 

Ex. : due de belies femmes ! How many handsome women 1 1 

Rule 8. English phrases used interrogatively, in which hom. 
is followed by an adjective or an adverb, cannot be literally 
translated into French. The French phrase must be construed 
in such a manner, that the English adjective or adverb will bo 
represented in French by a noun or adverb. 

How rich is he ? Quelle est sa fortune ? 

How big was it ? De quelle grosseur etait-il ? 

How old are you? Quel age avez-vous ? 

■ How often I Combien de fois ? 

How far? Jl quelle distance ? 

How few ? Combien ? 

Remark. How is translated into French by comme, when 
it is used in an affirmative sentence and serves to connect two 
rerbs. 

Ex. : Voyez comme elle est jolie, See how pretty she is. 

What is said of the past participle after le peu de ? — How is how translated into 
French when before an adjective in exclamatory sentences ? — How when th% 
phrase is interrogative 1 — How in affirmative sentences ? 



346 ADVERBS. 

So after how, in the interrogative phrase how so ? is translated 
by cela. 

Ex. : Comment cela? 

Rule 8. The adverb maintenant, now, cannot accompany a 
verb used in any of the past tenses, except in poetry. Its place 
is supplied by alors. 

Ex. : She was now happy, Elle etait alors heureuse. 

When is sometimes, in English, used instead of then, or 
where; but in French, quand cannot supply alors or oil. 
Ex.; He went to Paris; when he determined to he a soldier, 
II alia a Paris ; alors il se determina a etre soldat. 

Rule 9. In is used, in English, before the adverbs of place ; 
but dedans, which represents in, in French,xomes after them. 
Ex. : lei dedans, In here. 

Rule 10. Should the pronoun en and the adverb y come to- 
gether in the same sentence, the latter should be placed first. 

Ex. : Je vous y en porterai, J will carry you some thither. 

Rule 11. The adverb tout, which signifies quite, must be 
invariable, but it assumes the form of the feminine gender, and 
even that of the feminine plural, before feminine adjectives 
which commence with consonants. 

Ez, : Clest une chp,se toute nouvelle| 
It is quite a neto thing. 

Rule 12. A noun cannot be understood after an adverb in 
French, as it is sometimes in English. - 

Ex. : Beaucoup de gens pensent, Many think. 

ReMxIrk 1. Some more, followed by a noun, is generally 
translated by encore. 

Ex. : Encore de l'argent, Some more money. 

Remark 2. Why may be expressed by que ne instead of 
pourquoi, but only in exclamations with a negative, and when 
no direct answer is required. 

Ex. : due ne veniez-vous ? Why did you not come ? 

Remark 3. Many adverbs, after negative verbs, can be 
placed before pas or point. Done, then is always placed thus : 

Ex. : II ne parle done pas, 
He does not speak then. 
N. B. An exercise must be written on what precedes. 

WJiat is said of the adverb maintenant ? — Of the English adverb when?— Of y and 
en, when they are in the same sentence ?— -Of adverbs, when not followed by 
nouns ?— Of some more before a substantive 1— When does the adverb tout take 
the form of the feminine 1— When can why be translated by que ne? 



ADVERBS* 34? 

EXERCISE. 

Can you tell me how many books I lent you ? You sent me more 
than twelve, and I have read more than half of them. My father has 
more than six hundred pamphlets in his library. I do not believe that 
I have as many as he. He thought that I would not be able to carry 
on my business, because I am not as rich as his father. He is so con- 
ceited. That young lady possesses so much talent, that she attracts the 
admiration of every body. I expect that you will not rely upon my 
services, since you have so many friends. I would not believe that he 
will succeed ; he is so simple a man. I am so very busy, tliat it is im- 
possible for me to visit my friends. The more I go, the more I am per- 
suaded that a language cannot be acquired without taking pains. The 
worse he is, the more indulgent you are. The little money which I re- 
ceive from my parents prevents me from remaining in this city. Ths 
little firmness he has displayed was sufficient to overthrow their plans. 
How credulous you are ? How complaisant those gentlemen are ? How 
long will be our exercise for the next lesson. How well acquainted is 
he with music ? How near was the fleet when we discovered it ? Hear 
how he recites his lessons. They were now on the road to New- York, 
but. as their baggage was too heavy, they stopped at a little village, and 
left part of it there. She is quite amiable to-day, because you are here : 
but to-morrow she will be quite different. Your sisters were quite sur- 
prised when they heard us talk French. How could I have found you 
among so many ? I will give you some more bread. 

OF THE DEGREES OF SIGNIFICATION OF ADVEE.BS* 

Remark 1. Most adverbs denoting manner, have the three 
degrees of signification, which are formed as those of adjec- 
tives. 

The following are irregular. 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

bien, well mieux, better le mieux, the best. 

mal, bad pis, worse le pis, the worst. 

peu, little moins, less le moins, the least 

N. B, Worse and worse is translated by de pis en pis. 

N. B. See the remark on this subject page 210. 

Remark 2. The positive degree of the adverb tot, soon, has 
become obsolete in conversation. Its superlative absolute bien- 
tdt, is used in its place, and then stands both for soon and very 
soon. 

Yet tot is used after the other adverb, as plustdt, sooner, <fc. 

Remark 3. The adverb bien is sometimes expletive ; or in 
other words, used by superfluity. It generally adds elegance 
or force to the verbs which it modifies. 

What are the adverbs which have the degrees of signification?— What nro 
those that are irregular ?— What is said of the adverb tot, soon ?— What is said 
of bien ? 



343 AtoVJBRfi*; 

Ex. : Veuillez bien, Please. 

Je vois bien, I see plainly. 

Remark 4. Adverbs of quantity, as well as mal, bien, and 
tout, are often placed before a verb in the infinitive, contrary 
to the rule, page 151. 

Ex. : J'ai cm bien faire, / thought I did right. 

Remark 5. The adverb tellement, formed from tel, such. 
stands for so much, so much so. 

Ex. : II a tellement parle que, &c. 
He has spoken so much that, fyc. 

OF THE NEGATIVE AND RESTRICTIVE ADVERBS. 

Remark 1. The adverb not, prefixed to adjectives or othar 
adverbs, is translated into French by pas. 

Ex. : Est-il bon ? Pas tres bon, Is he good ? Not very good. 

Pas d'avantage, No more, not any more. 

Remark % Prefixed to only, followed by but, not is express- 
ed by non. 

Ex.: II est non-seulement ignorant, mais encore obstine, 
He is not only ignorant, but also obstinate. 

Remark 3. Plus que, followed by a number, corresponds 
to the English adverb only, followed a number and the adverb 
more. 

Ex.: Plus que trois, Only three more. 

Remark 4. Neither and either, preceded by nor 3 are trans- 
lated by non plus. 

Ex. : Ni moi non plus, Nor I either. 

Remark 5. The adverbs only and but, after the conjunction 

if, are translated by ne que, when they convey an idea of 

insufficiency. 

Ex. : Si je n'avais que dix dollars je serais embarrasse, 
If I had only ten dollars I loould be embarrassed. 

But only is represented in French by seulement, when it ex- 
presses sufficiency. 
Ex. : Si j'avais seulement dix dollars je serais content,. 
If I had only ten dollars I would be satisfied* 

of the negatives ne, pas, and point. 
The negative pas or point must accompany ne in all cir- 
cumstances, except when there is in the sentence a negative 
pronoun or adverb. 

When is not translated by pas? — Before what adverb must it be translated by 

non? — What does plus que stand for ? — By what words are neither and nor either 

represented in French? — What is the difference between ne... .que and seulement,. 
after si? — What is to be remarked concerning the negatives ne, pas, and point? ^ 



ADVERBS. 349 

K. 8. It will not be necessary to repeat here all that was said on 
this subject in the different parts of this work. 

Remark 1. The words goutte, drop ; mot, word ; are, in 
some few cases, used to complete the negation expressed by ne. 

Ex. : Je n'y yois goutte, J cannot see at all, 

Je ne dirai mot, I will not say anything. 

Remark 2. After the verbs cesser, oser, savoir, and pou- 
voir, the pas or point may be omitted, for the sake of elegance. 

Ex. : Je n'ose vous en parler, I dare not speak to you about it. 

Remark 3. According to the Remark 4, page 305, a relative 
pronoun, the antecedent of which is an indefinite pronoun, 
requires to be followed by the subjunctive mood. But if the 
verb in the subjunctive be negative, the pas or point must be 
omitted, as above. 

N. B. Un or une, standing for a or an, indefinite pronoun, 
although not mentioned among those of the second class, on 
account of its being previously called an indefinite article. 
(See page 62.) 

Connaissez-vous un homme dont elle ne m£dise ? 
Do you know a man that she does not slander 1 

Remark 4. Pas or point is most generally omitted after a 
verb, the nominative of which is qui, used in exclamation, un- 
der the interrogative form. 

Ex. : GLui ne sent Pimportance de Peducation ? 

Who does not feel the importance of education? 

Remark 5. The difference between pas and point is this: 
Point is a stronger negative than pas, but the former is in 
many circumstances used in an elegant style, to prevent the 
too frequent repetition of the word pas. 

Remark 6. There are many instances in which ne is used, 
although the phrase be affirmative, as was spoken of page 306. 
One more instance of the use of ne will be mentioned here. 

Ne is used with the verb which is the second member of a 
comparison, that presents an idea of inequality. 
Ex. : II est moins beau qu'il n'etait, 
He is less handsome than he was. 

But it is not used if the comparative presents equality. 

Elle est aussi belle < > qu , elle WtaiL 

Eile n'est pas moms aimable ) n 
She is as handsome as she ivas, 
She is not less amiable than she ivas. 

What are the vevbs after which pas or point maybe suppressed, although pre- 
ceded by ne?— When ought neto be used in the second member of a comparison 1 
When ought it be suppressed ? 

30 



350 CONJUNCTIONS* 

And also when the comparative adverb is an adverb of equa- 
lity, 
Ex. : Elle n'est pas aussi belle quelle FeHait, 
She is not as handsome as she was. 

EXERCISE. 

That young man is not well, although the doctor said that he was 
better to-day. Do you think that he is worse. I had little when I 
commenced business, and I have still less now. All goes worse and 
worse. My master is not at home, but he will soon come back. Will 
he return sooner than he did yesterday ? When he went out, he told 
me that he would return very soon. I perceived that he will be absent 
all day. Is that man very tall ? Not very tall, Sir, but he is taller 
than you. That fact is not only true, but it is proved by witnesses. 
How many days do you want me to grant you to finish your work? 
Only six more. You did not go there, and we neither. If the king 
had been able to oppose only twelve thousand men, he would have 
gained the battle. I say that if he had commanded only twelve thou- 
sand men, he would have been completely defeated. I do not dare 
speak to him. I cannot see him without trembling. Name one of my 
countrymen whom I did not oblige when I could. They are more con- 
ceited than they ever were, since they have been told that they sing 
well. Time seems now longer than it was formerly. Does he not sell 
his goods cheaper than he sold them last year ? He is not less ugly 
than he was, but you are more accustomed to his face. You are as 
credulous as you were before. Who does not hate such people ? 



CHAPTER IX. 

OF THE CONJUNCTIONS. 

N. B. The learner must refer to page 154, where lie will 
find some explanations on the conjunctions. 

It will not be necessary to repeat here all that was said on 
the conjunctions in the course of this work, viz, page 196, of 
sort and ni; 278, of o% de meme, que, $c; 290 and 292, 
of si ; and 312, of a moins que, fyc. 

Rule 1. The conjunction que is always placed between 
two ideas, both necessary to complete the sense of a sentence, 
and cannot be spared in French, as it is in English. 

Ex. : Je crois qu'il est honnete homme, 

/ believe he is, or that he is an honest man. 

Remark. Such phrases as that given in the following ex- 
ample, are translated with the aid of the conjunction que. 

Ex. : C'est a vous que je parle, It is you I am speaking to. 
What is said of the conjunction that ? 



CONJUNCTIONS. 351 

Rule 2. The conjunction whether is translated into French 
hy sort que or simply que, when it is at the beginning of a sen- 
tence or a proposition. It requires the use of the subjunctive. 

Ex. : Glu'il reste ou qu'il s'en ailie, je nebougerai pas, 
Whether he remains or goes, I will not stir. 

Whether, used between two verbs, which it connects to- 
gether, is expressed by si. 

Remark. The verb which follows si standing for whether, 
is used in French in the same tense that it is in English. 

Ex. : Je ne sais s'il viendra ou non, 

J do not know whether he icill come or not. 

Remark 1. The conjunction tellement que signifies in such 
a manner that. 

Remark 2. Both, when a conjunction, is often translated 
by et repeated. 

Ex. : Elle etait et jeune et jolie, 

She ivas both young and pretty. 

EXERCISE. 

Do you think he will do what I want? I do not believe he is an 
officer. I will bet he does not know your name. They assure me he 
is my friend ; but whether he is my friend or not, I will not go with 
him. I hope I shall not be deceived. I am sure he is not my enemy, 
whether you say so or not. You are afraid I am not well informed, 
I presume he is a stranger, whether he speaks good French or not. I 
cannot remember whether we or he came first. You may take him as 
& servant, but I cannot say whether he will stay or not. 



PART III. 



FRENCH AND ENGLISH IDIOMS. 

The object of this Part is to explain the use of the Galli- 
cisms, and also to show the scholar how to translate into 
French the Anglicisms which have not been mentioned in the 
course of the work. 

The exercises contained in this Part cannot be as numerous and as 
long as those of the First and Second Parts. In many instances it 
would even be useless to give any, since the phrases which represent 
the gallicisms in English, are sometimes so different from the French, 
that they might be translated in various ways, and thus destroy the 
object of the exercise. But, in order to practise upon these difficulties, 
it will be necessary for the learner to write compositions on the subjects 
given by the teacher ; which compositions will have the double effect 
of obliging die student to make use of the difficulty that is intended to 
be given to him, and that of composing phrases, in which many of the 
rules contained in the other Parts will be applied. 

Intel) igent scholars may as well commence to write compositions on 
this Third Part, as soon as they begin to be tolerably well acquainted 
with the first 200 pages of the Grammar. 

OF THE VERBS avoir AND ttrt. 

The cbnstruction of the French sentence requires, in some 
instances, that the verb to be should be translated by avoir^ as. 
will be seen in the following list. 

AVOIR. TO BE. 

faim hungry 

soif thirsty 

froid cold 

chaud warm 

sommeil sleepy 

peur afraid 

honte ashamed 

raison right 

tort wrong 

des affaires busy 

deux, trois, dix, vingt ans,&c. 2, 3, 10, 20 years old, &c 

deux, trois, quatre pieds, &c. 2, 3, 4 feet high, &c. 

Remark 1. The above verbs can only have persons or ani- 
mals for their agents. Thus, do not say, Cette chambre a 

What are the instances in which the French verb avoir stands for the English 
yeibfo hel — What sorts of nominatives do these verbs require ? 






GALLICISMS. 353 



froid, for, This room is cold ; but say, Cette chambre est 
froide. 

Remark 2. The verbs avoir peur, honte, raison, and tort, 
take the preposition de before an infinitive. 

Ex. : Vous avez tort de parler, You are wrong to speak. 

Remark 3. The English adverb very, which sometimes pre- 
cedes the adjectives hungry, thirsty, $c, is translated into 
French by bien placed immediately after the verb avoir. 
Ex. : I am very thirsty, J J ai Men soif. 

Very, or very much, is likewise translated bv the adjective 
grand, before the words/ro^cZ and tort ; and by grand' (the 
apostrophe standing for the mute e which is omitted) before 
the feminine nouns f aim, soif, and peur. 

Ex. : Elle avait grand' peur, She was very much afraid. 

Remark 4. So, before the same adjectives, is translated by 
tellement, or by si before froid and chaud. The comparative 
adverbs more and less are not followed by de before the same 
words. 

Ex. : Elle a tellement peur qii'elle ne dort pas, 
She is so afraid that she does not sleep. 
J^ai plus froid que jamais, 
I am more cold than ever. 

Remark 5. The verb to make, followed by the same adjec- 
tives, is represented in French by donner. 

Ex. : Ce gateau m?a donne soif, That cake made me thirsty. 

GALLICISMS CONSTRUED WITH avoir. 

Avoir mat a, followed by the name of any part of the body, 
expresses all kinds of pain, sores, aches, tf-c. 

Ex. : J'ai mal a la tete, au nez, au pied, &c 

I have a headache, a sore nose, a pain in my foot, fyc. 

Remark 1. Avoir mala, when relating to one of the limbs, 
signifies, to have a sore. To have a pain, is, in this case, trans- 
lated by avoir une douleur, or des doideurs a. 

The latter expression ought to be used with the word heart; 
avoir mal au cozur having quite a different meaning, as can be 
seen by the following example. 

What are the verbs among these that require de, and when do they require it ? 
— How is very expressed with these verbs 1— How is so ?— How is the verb to 
make, expressed before these adjectives ?— In what manner are the words pain^ 
sore, ache, translated into French ? 

30* 



354 



GALLICISMS. 



J'ai mal au cceur, 



My &tornach rises. 



Remark 2. The preposition de, without an article, may be 
used after avoir mal, when it is spoken of a pain, sore, ache r 
to which a person is or may be subject. 

Ex. : Comment va votre mal de dent ? 
How is your toothache ? 

Remark 3. When the word mal is qualified by an adjec- 
tive, it must be preceded by the article un. 

Ex. : J'avais un mal de tete tres- violent, 
I had a very violent headache. 

Avoir chaud, or froid a, followed by the name of any part 
of the body, expresses that these parts are warm or cold. 



Ex. : J'ai froid aux pieds, 
Avoir, to have on. 
Ex. : II avail son habit neuf 



My feet are cold. 



He had his new coat on» 



AVOIR ] 



' besoin de to want, to be in need of 

coutume de to be accustomed to 

(only used before a verb.) 
dessein de to design, (to intend to.) 

pitie* de to pity 

en vie de to have a mind to 

soin de to take care of (to have care.) 

horreur de to have horror of 

recours a to have recourse to 

de la peine a to be hardly able to 

Pair to look 

(used when to look is followed by an adjective or an adverb.)' 
Pair de to look like, (to, have the appear- 

ance of.) 
Pair de to look as if 

(used when the nominative of the second verb is the same 
as that of the verb to look.) 



lieu 
lieu de 
du feu 
la guerre 
L la fievre 
n'avoir garde de 

n'avoir que faire de 



Uo 
I to 



to take place, (referring to time.) 
to have reason for 
to have afire 
to have a war 
to have a fever 

to be far from, (doing any thing.) 
to have no need of, (not to care for.) 
have no business to 



When can de be used after avoir mal ?— When ought mal to be preceded by an 
article 1— How can you express any part of the body that is cold or warm 1 



GALLICISMS. 355 

N. B. The above two verbs cannot be used interrogatively. 
The latter generally conveys an idea of reproach or anger. 

Remark. After the verb, to have, the English make use of 
the indefinite article, before the different parts of the body, 
when these words are qualified by an adjective. The French 
use le, la, les, when the adjective follows the noun, and un, 
une, when it precedes it. 

In the plural, les is used, if the qualification is peculiar to 
the noun qualified, without any idea of comparing it with 
others, and des, or de, when there is an idea of comparison. 

Ex. : II a le front haul, He has a high forehead. 

Elle a unejolie bouche, She has a handsome mouth. 

II eut les mains brulees, He had his hands burnt. 

Vous avez de petit es mains, Your hands are small. 

Avoir beau. This verb, which forms a very singular gal- 
licism, signifies that it is in vain for its nominative to do, any 
longer, a thing that has been tried before. It is only used af- 
firmatively. The following examples will make it intelligible. 

Vous avez beau crier vous ne m'attendrirez pas, 
Jt is in vain or useless for you to cry, you will not soften me. 
J'ai beau etudier je ne peux jamais rien apprendre, 
Although I study, or in spite of all my exertions, I never can learn any 
thing. 

OF THE IMPERSONAL VERE y avoir. 

il y a, there is, there are. 

il y avait, there loas, there were. 

il y eut, there was, there were. 

il y aura, * there will or shall be. 

il y aurait, there would, could, or should be. 

il y a eu, &c there has or have been, tyc. 

qu'il y ait, that there may be. 

qu'il y eut, &c. that there might be, fyc. 

N. B. There is and there are, are also translated by void and wild, 
as explained below. 

THE SAME VERB INTERROGATIVE AND NEGATIVE. 

il n'y a pas, there is or are not, 

y a-t-il? is or are there ? 

n'y a-t-il pas? is or are there not ? 

? The use of the above verb is very extensive. It not only 
translates into French the English verb, there is, there are, $c. 
but it is used besides in various instances, as follows. 



What does avoir beau signify ?—What is the verb y avoir used for? 



356 GALLICISMS. 

The student has learnt by the general rule, upon the pronoun 
en, page 247, that there are many instances in which en can- 
not be used. But when, in these instances, the verb y avoir 
can be introduced in the sentence, the pronoun en is placed 
before that verb, and the phrase becomes at the same time 
elegant and easy. 

Ex. : Two are absent, and three are sick, 

II y en a deux tfabsens et trois de malades, 

11 y a is used also in many locutions. 

Ex. : II y a apparence de pluie, It looks like rain. 

II n' y a pas moyen de Pempecher, 
There is no preventing him. 

Some, when initial, is translated by the aid of y avoir. 

Ex. : II y a des hommes qui pensent. 
Some men think. 

Remark. In a refined style, the verb etre, used imperson- 
ally, is employed instead of y avoir. 

II est des philosophes qui preferent la pauvrete* aux richesses, 
There are philosophers who prefer poverty to wealth. 

II, when impersonal, must be used even when the verb etre 
is followed by un. 

Ex. : II etait un roi qui, fyc. There was a king who, &c. 

on void and voila. 
There is., or are, here is, or are, used in pointing out ob- 
jects, are translated into French by the two prepositions voila, 
and void. 

Ex, : Voici un homme, Here is a man. 

Voila deux dames, There are two ladies. 

N. B. Although voici is intended to be used when the object is near, 
and voila when the object is distant, yet voila is most generally used in 
both instances, but not in the same phrase. 

Remark 1. Voici and voila are seldom used when the 
name of the place where the object is, is found in the sen- 
tence. 

Ex. : There is a book on that table, 

II y aun livre sur cette table } better than 
voila un livre sur cette table. 

When ought it to be used besides ?— When can the verb to be be used in its 
place? — When must voici and voila be used for here is, there is? 



GALLICISMS* 357 

Remark 2. These two prepositions being the contractions 
of the words vois id, and vois la, receive the pronouns like 
verbs. The only difference is, that the personal pronouns are 
always used before them, and never after. 

Ex. : Me voici, Here I am. 

La voila, There she is. 

Voici and voila can, in this case, be followed by an adjec- 
tive, a participle, or an adverb. 

Ex. : Nous voila riches, Noiv we are rich. 

If a present participle is then used, in English, after the verb 
to be, it must be translated into French by the present of the 
indicative, preceded by the relative qui, or the infinitive pre- 
ceded by d. 

Ex. : Le voila qui travaille, There he is working, 
Nous -voici a pleurer, Here ice are crying. 

The verb after voici was formerly placed in some instances, 
before its nominative without any preposition. 

Ex. : Voici venir mon frere, Here is my brother coming. 

Remark 3- Voici and voila must be preceded by en, when 
followed by a number, or any expression of quantity, which is 
not accompanied by a substantive. 

Ex.: En voila un, There is one. 

En voici plusieurs, Here are several. 

Remark 4. Voici, and voila, answer for this is } thatis 3 as 
-well as c'est Id, (see page 264.) 

Ex. : Voila son fils, That is his son, 

Voici le jour, This is the day. 

Voila answers for so much for, as in one of the examples 
that follow. 

Ex. : Voila pour votre negligence, So much for your carelessness. 
Voici ce qu'il propose, This is what he proposes. 

N. B. In this last instance there is a marked difference between void 
and voila. The latter is used when the thing alluded to, precedes this 
or that is, and the former, when that thing is placed after. In the above 
example, therefore, it will be understood that what he proposes is going 
to be mentioned. 



Can the personal pronoun be used after these prepositions ? — How is a present 
participle after there is translated into French ?— What do voici and voila answer 
foj, besides ) 



358 



GALLICISMS. 



EXPRESSIONS OF TIME WITH y aVOlT AND depuis. 



The verb y avoir is used when speaking of time, whatever 
be the English expression to be translated. 

Ex. : II y a trois jours, Three days ago. 

The preposition depuis is used to express a state of things 
that extends to the present time, as will be exemplified below. 

Rule !. The verb y avoir is put in the present of the indi- 
cative., when the length of the time mentioned in the phrase 
expires now, as in the above example, or when the action is 
still continuing. 

Ex. : II y a dix ans de'cela, That was ten years ago. 

Remark 1. The verb following il y a must be used in the 
present of the indicative, when the action spoken of still con- 
tinues. 

Ex. : II y a dix ans que je demeure ici, or, 
Je demeure ici depuis dix ans, 
I have been living here ten years. 

Remark 2. The verb following il y a must be used in the 
past tenses, when the action has ceased ; viz., in the imperfect 
if it expresses a state of things that was going on at the time 
mentioned ; in the preterit definite, if the action took place and 
all is over ; and in the preterit indefinite or compound of the 
present, if the action took place, but its consequences are still 
existing. 

Ex. : II y a trois jours que, j'etais malade, 
J was sick three days ago. 

II y a dix ans que je parlai en public pour la premiere fois, 
It is ten years since I spoke in public for the first time. 
II n'y a pas huit jours que j'ai quitte votre sosur, 
It is not eight days since I left your sister. 

Remark 3. When it is intended to express that an action 
habitually performed has not taken place for a length of time, 
the negative we, .without being followed by pas, must be placed 
before the verb that follows il y a, which verb is used in the 
preterit indefinite; the whole sentence may also be expressed 
by depuis. 

Ex. : II y a trois mois que je ne Pai vu, 
Je ne Pai pas vu depuis trois mois, 
It is three months since I saw him. 

How are expressions of time translated into French ?— When can depuis be 
use( i ?_When is y avoir used in the present of the indicative 1— When is the veyfe 
after il y a put in the present of the indicative ?— When in the imperfect } 



GALLICISMS. 356 

Rtf le 2. The verb y avoir is used in the imperfeet when we 
count the time elapsed between two actions, the second of which 
has taken place. 

Remark. II y avait is followed by the imperfect, if the ac- 
tion expressed by the second verb was going on, and by the 
pluperfect if it had taken place and was entirely over. 

Ex. : II y avait trois jours que nous marchions, or, 
Nous marchions depuis trois jours, 
We had been walking three days. 

II. y avait huit ans que nous n'avions vu la France, or, 
Nous n'avions pas vu la France depuis huit ans, 
It was eight years since we had seen France. 

Rule 3. Y avoir is used in the preterit definite or indefi- 
nite, if the time is counted up to a period which is also past, 
and not to a second action performed. 

Ex. : II y eut trois jours hier, It was three days yesterday. 

Rule 4. Y avoir is used in the future, conditional, and the 
compound tenses, not mentioned before, when the English 
phrase requires the use of these tenses and moods. 

Remark 1. The verb which follows ily aura, is used in the 
present of the indicative or the preterit indefinite, and not in 
the future tenses, as it relates to something of actual inte- 
rest. The present of the indicative is used when the ac- 
tion is going on, the preterit when it is passed. 

Remark 2. The verbs which follow il y aurait, il y aurait 
eu, il y avait eu, &c, are used in the same tenses as in English. 

Ex. : II y aura dix jours demain que je suis malade, 
It will be ten days to-morrow since I have been sick, 
II y aura trois semaines que je ne Pai vu, 
It will be three weeks since I saio him. 
II y aurait deux mois que je serais marie, 
I would have been married two months. 

General Remark. The phrase construed with il y a, il 
y avait, fyc, and relating to something that took place some 
time ago, must commence with ily a, il y avait, $c, when the 
time is the principal object in view. But the verb expressing 
the action is placed at the head of the sentence, if the time is 
but secondary. 

When in the preterits ? — How is the phrase construed when we speak of a 
length of time, during- which an action has not taken place?— When is y avoir 
used in the imperfect 1 — In what tenses are the verbs used after il y avait 1 — 
When is y avoir used in the preterits ? — In what tenses are the verbs used after 
the preterits of. y avoir ?— When is y avoir used in the future 7 — How is the verb 
! used after ily aura ?— How are the other tenses of y avoir used ?— When must 
| the phrase commence with ily a ?— When must it commence with other words ? 



360 GALLICISMS. 

" The phrase must commence with il ya,ily avait, when the 
thing is still continuing. It may likewise be construed with, 
depuis. 

Ex. : Je vous entrevis il y a trois jours, 

I had a glimpse of you three days ago. 

But : II y a trois jours que je suis ici, or, - # 

Je suis ici depuis trois jours, 
I have been here three days. 

N. B. II y a or depuis cannot be used, if the time specified 
is that which expresses the length of an action. Such phrases 
may be translated by analogy with the following ones. 

Ex. : Pai mis une heure a me raser, 

I was one hour shaving. 

II leur fallut long terns pour se determiner, 

It was along time before they could make up their minds. 

How long, is expressed by combien de terns : or only com- 
Men. 

Ex. : Combien de tems y-a-t-il, or, Combien y-a-t-il de terns que 
vous etes a New- York? 
How long have you been in New-York ? 
Combien y-a-t-il que votre frere est marie ? 
How long has your brother been married ? 

How long ago, is translated by combien y-a-t-il de tems ? 

Not long ago, by il ri*y a pas long tems, or, depuis peu de 
tems : depuis peu. 

A long time since, by depuis long-tems. 

Remark. II y a is never accompanied by depuis in the? 
same sentence, but only by the conjunction que. 

Ex. : II y a deux heures que nous marchons, and not depuis que, 
We have been walking these two hours. 

OF .EXPRESSIONS OF DISTANCE. 

II y a is also used to mark distance. 

II y a 244 milles de New- York a Boston, 
It is 244 miles from New-York to Boston. 

How far? is expressed by combien de distance? or simply 
combien 1 



Can depuis and ily a be used together 1— How is the phrase construed when*, 
the time specified is that of the length of an action 1 — How is how long expressed ? 
— How is not long ago ? — How are expressions of distance translated into French 1' 
—How is how far expressed ? 



GALLICISMS. 



361 



Combien y a-t-il de distance de Salem a Providence ? 
How far is it from Salem to Providence ? 

We might also say, 

Gluelle distance y a-t-il de New- York, &c. 

How far? is rendered by jusqu'ou? which literally means 
to where ? when its place can be supplied by to what distance ? 
Jusques ou? how far? is sometimes used in poetry. 

Jusqu'ou sont-ils alles ? Hew far did they go ? 

EXERCISE. 

I have been waiting for you two hours, and I was determined to go 
if you had not coma before dinner. I am extremely sorry that you 
waited so long, bat I started from home about two hours ago, and I was 
prevented from bein^ here earlier by an accident. How are your sis- 
ters? It is so long since [saw them, that I would hardly recognize 
them now. His father died twelve years ago, and left him an immense 
estate ; but he squandered it, and he has been poor these three yeirs. 
That boy says that he has been studying that lesson one hoar : he mast 
know it now. It was about two h ou s since we had left them, when 
they sent a servant after us. The armies had been fighting more than 
one hour, when the storm prevented them from continuing. My sister 
was twenty yesterdiy, and I shall be twenty-five wext week. How 
long has your unele been married ? It will be two years to-morrow. 
Wtien the engines arrived, the house had been burnin» three hours. 
He came to this country ten years ago. He would have been married 
three years, if he had not broken the engagement. Do you not believe 
that I have been learning French on!y two quarters ? It is longer than 
that. 

GALLICISMS CONSTRUED WITH etre. 



ETRE i 



" en retard 
en rTai res 
dans iesafifiires 
en marche pour 
en marche pour 
en mesure de 
en etat de 
a meme d 
en proces 
en peine de 
en vie 
en soiree 
k en souci 



' late 

transacting business 

in business 

marc fling to 

bargaining for 

prepared for 

to be { , , , 
ab'e to 

at law 

distressed about, anxious 

alive [about 

at an evening party 

thoughtful 



What are the gallicisms construed with etre ? 

31 



362 



GALLICISMS. 



' en train de 
en paix 
en guerre 
amoureux 
au fait de ) 

au courant de $ 
a la veille de 
a 1'abri de 
au soleil 
a l'ombre 
au frais 
a la pluie 
a la neige 
au vent, &c. 
de trop 
fache* de 
fache pour 
fache que 
fache avec 
en fonds 
en balance 
aux prises 
bien 
libre 

presse* de 
occupe a 
occupy 
en de route 
debout 
a I'envers 
a l'endroit 
de bonne humeur 
de mauvaise humeur 
bien crnipe 

a la portee du fusil, &c. 
brouille* 
em-hume" 
de moitie 
en recreation 
en campagne 
a la campagne 
d'avis que 
aux aguets 



busy (doing any thing) 

at peace 

at war 

in love 

well acquainted with 

(things) 
on the point of 
sheltered from 
in the sun 
in the shade 
in a cool place 
in the rain 
in the snoio 
in the wind, fyc. 
unnecessary 
sorry for (things) 
sorry for (persons) 
; ^ sorry that 
angry with 
in cash 
hesitating 
engaged in a battle 
on good terms, well off 
disengaged 
in haste to 

busy (a present participle) 
busy 
routed 
up 

on the wrong side 
on the right side 
in good humour 
in bad humour 
in a fine pickle 
b within gun-shot j fyc. 
to have quarrelled, fallen off 
to have a cold 
to go halves 
to have an intermission 
to have commenced the cam- 
to be in the country [paign 
to think that 
to lie in wait 



Y etre signifies, to be in, to be at home. 
It also signifies, to hit a thing ; to guess it. 
Ex. : J'y suis, J hit it right. 



What does y etre signify ? 



GALLICISMS. 



363 



Where did we have off 7 
You left off when, fyc 



^En etre means, to be one of the number, to be one of the 

Ex.: J'ensuis, I am one of the party. 

Ces hvres n'en sont pas, These books are not in the set. 

En etre is also used in narration, reading, or writing, in- 
stead of, to leave off. 

Ou en e lions-nous? 
Vous en et;ez lorsque, &c 

., E ™ E Mollowed by an infinitive, is often used to translate 
the English verb, to be, followed by a present participle. 
Je suis a d iner, / am dining 

Vous etiez a jaser, You were prating. 

The sentence translated thus, acquires more force than by 
the simple tenses of the verb. 

A, after etre, expresses the possessive case after to be. 
Ex. : Ceci est a mon frere, This is my brother's. 



GALLICISMS CONSTRUED WITH THE VERB /aire. 



Faire mal a, 
Ex.: J'ai fait mal a cet enfant, 
Le Soulier me fait mal, 
Vous m'avez fait mal au bras, 
La tete lui fait mal, 
'grace a 

peur a 

home a 

env e a 

pitie a 

part a (de) 

des com pi i mens a 

compliment a 

la barbe a 

la cour a 

present a (de) 

cdeau a (de) 

credit a 

honneur a 

deshonneur a 

tort a 
[ face a 



To hurt. 

I hurt that child. 

My shoe hurts me. 

You hurt my arm. 

His head hurts him. 
to pardon 
to frighten 
to shame 

to excite the envy of 
to excite the pity of 
to inform (of) 
to pay compliments to 
to compliment 
to shave 
to court 

to present (with) 

to give on credit to 
to be a credit to 
to disgrace 
to wrong 
to face 



What does en etre mean ?— In what instance, and how can an infinitive be used 
after etrel— How is the possessive case after to be, expressed in French ?— What 
&re the gallicisms on faire ? 



364 





GALLICISMS. 


^'aumone a 


to give alms to 


passer a 
voir a 


to pass (act. trans.) 
to sIigw, to let see 


savoir a 


to let know 


dire a 


to send word to 


tenir a 


to convey to 



Remark. When the objective to the preposition a whicls 
follows the above verbs is a personal pronoun, that pronoun 
must be ; ::ed and placed ivilh the verbs as indirect objectives- 
are. 

Ex. : Je lui ferai grace, I ivill pardon him, 

to pay attention to 
to do justice to 
to esteem 

N. B. The above three verbs do not admit of an indirect objective, 
and the noun or pronoun which accompanies them must be considered 
as the objective of the preposition- a or de. 




' fete 

le dimanche 
feu 

fortune 
voile 
naufrage 
une demarche 
un prisonnier 
un voyage 
une question 
une i eponse 
le commerce (de) 
la cuisine 
la grimace 
une chambre 
des t.saits 
des dettes 
des armes 
de la musique 
du bruit 
du feu 
sesadieux 
ses affaires 
son chemin 
emplette de 
un tour de * 



U keep a holiday 

to keep Sunday 

to fire (act. in trans.) 

to make one's fortune 

to set sail 

to be wrecked 

to take a step 

to take a prisoner 

to take a jourm y 

to ask a question 

to give an answer 

to trade (in) 

to cook (act. intr.) 

to make faces 

to clean a room 

to flourish (in writing). 

to run in debt 

to fence (with foils) 

to execute music 

to make a ntise 

to make up afire 

to bid aditu 

to succeed in business:, 

to gel ahng well 

to purchase 

to ivalk round 



N. B The above gallicisms not being attached to a general system of, gram* 
mar, the questions will be henceforward suppressed. The teacher may* for tfefc 
future, supply the questions himself. 



GALLICISMS. 



365 



FAIRE 



i'la moue 
ies cartes 
connaissance avec 
partie de 
provision de 
grand' chere 
de son mieux pour 
semblant de (an infinitive) 
ensorfee que j 

de maniere que > 

que ) 

foi 



valoir 



to poitt 

to tell fortune by cards 

to become acquainted with (a person) 

to be one of, a number of 

to lay in 

to live w ell 

to try one's best to 

to make as if 

> to do in such manner that, tyc. 

to prove (when its nominative is the 

name of a thing) 
to invest (money), to improve, (acU 

trans.) 
to put to death 
to be dear living 
to send for 
to charge 
to turn out 
to put in mind 
to cause to err 
to let in 
to fry 

to do nothing but 
to have but just 
to only 



perir 

cher vivre 
venir 
payer 

Isortir 
penser 
t romper 
J entrer 
(^ frire 
Ne faire que (a verb) 
Ne faire que de (a verb) 
Ne faire que 

Ex. : Je ne fis que le toucher, 1 only touched him. 

Faire, prefixed to an infinitive, expresses that the nomina- 
tive to the verb faire, causes the action expressed by the infi- 
nitive, to be performed by another person. It thus corresponds 
to the English verbs to cause, to make, to get. 



Ex. : Je le fis punir 

Cela me fera rire, 

J'ai fait peindre ma maison, 



/ caused him to be punished. 
That loill make me laugh. 
I got my house painted. 



It can be also prefixed to faire, and both verbs have the 
sense of to bespeak, to get made ; 

Ex. : Je ferai faire une table, J shall have a table made. 

11 faut la faire faire bien grande, You must have it made very large, 

Se faire, to get accustom ed, to become, to turn. 

S3 faire vieux, to be getting old. 

Se faire, prefixed to an infinitive, expresses that the action 
performed has for its objective the person who gets the action 
performed. 

Je me ferai accompagner, 
I will have some one to accompany me. 
31* 



366 



GALLICISMS. 



one, two mileg f 
tioenty leagues, 



f a pied, to walk 

Faire un mille, a cheval, } 

deux milles, { en voiture, > to ride 

vingt lieues, I en traineau, ) 

&c. ^ en bateau, to sail 

Faire, followed by the name of a profession or trade, signi^ 
fies to follow a business, a trade. 

Ex. : Ii fait le tailleur, He is a tailor, 

Faire, followed by an adjective, corresponds to to pretend 
to be. 

Ex. : II fait le savant, He pretends to be learned. 

Faire, used impersonally when speaking of weather, an- 
swers to the verb to be. 

It is iv arm. 
It will be cold. 
II fait frais, beau, mauvais, crott£, sombre, clair, noir, obscur, sec, 

glissant, 
It is cool, fine, bad, dirty, dark, clear, gloomy, dull, dry, slippery. 

OTHER EXAMPLES OF faire, USED IMPERSONALLY. 

II fait mauvais marcher, It is bad walking. 

II fait bon ici, It is comfortable here. 

II fait du tonnerre, des eclairs, It thunders, it lightens, it is foggy: 

iveathtr, the wind bloics. 
It is day light, it is night, the moon 

shines. 
It draws towards day light, it draws, 

towards night, it draws late. 
It is cloudy. 
The sun shines. 
The moon shines. 
It is dark. 



II fait chaud, 
II fera froid. 



du brouillard, du vent, 
II fait jour, nuit, clair de lune, 

II se fait jour, nuit, tard, 



II fait un terns convert, 
II fait soieil, 
II fait (Uair de lune, 
II fait obscur, sombre, 



GALLICISMS CONSTRUED WITH OTHER VERBS. 



\ soin de 



un parti 
du tabac 
le deuil 
I'air 
PRENDRE \ la fuite 
haleine 



garde jj 



bef. a noun 
de bef. a verb 



terre 
place 
paiience 
colere 
ime;et a 
medecine ) 

[ une medecine J 



l' lake charge of, to have the 
charge of 

take care, to mind 

come to a determination 
take snvff 
go into mourning 
breathe fresh air 
to <{ take flight 

take breathing time 
land 
take seat 
have patience 
get into a passion 
be interested in 

to take some medicine 



j YIOILU 

RENDre<J graces 
| raison 
{ service 



GALLICISMS. 357 

fcompte (account far 

pay a visit 
thank 

return an answer 
I do service 

Rendre, followed by an adjective, signifies to make. 
Ex. : Cela me rend heureux, That makes me happy. 

| 'en fait 
au fait 
le feu a 
en vente 
en pieces 

METTRE <! f " g . l ^ e 

} a meme de > 

en e\at de y 

a i'abri 

a la raison 

en peine 
w a la porte 

f de maison 

changer { de place 
| d'avis 
^ d'air 

Changer de, &c. 



assert 

give a true notion of 

set on fire 

expose for sale 

break into pieces 

pawn 

enable 

shelter 

oblige to do well 
keep anxious 
k turn out 

( move (from one house into 

another) 
<{ remove (an object) 
[ change one's mind 
\ change air 



To change one's, #c. 

N. B. The English verb to change, followed by a posses- 
sive adjective, is translated into French by changer de, with- 
out the possessive adjective. 

Ex. : Allez changer de bottes, Go and change your boots. 

of the verbs aller and venir. 
The verb aller is nsed in French, as well as the verb to go, 
in English, to express an action which will take place imme- 
diately. Its use in French is more frequent than in English. 
Ex. : Je vais 6crire, / am going to write 

Je vais soitir, I am going out. 

Je vais y aller, / wdl go there directly. 

The verb venir, followed by the preposition de, is used to 
express an action which has just taken plac<>, and can be used, 
in that acceptation, in every circumstance. 

Ex.: Je viens de diner, I have just dined. 

II vient. de sortir, He has just gone out. 

Nous venons de rentrer, We have just come in. 

N. B. It must be observed that aller and venir can be used 
as above explained, only in the present and imperfect of the 
indicative. 



368 GALLICISMS. 

Alter signifies, also to be, to become. 

Ex. : II va ires bien He >s very well. 

Ceia va bien That is well. 

Cet habit, me va bien, That coal becomes me very well. 

" SOME OTHER VERBS. 

Penser signifies to have like. 

Ex. : J'ai pense etre tue, I had like to have been killed. 

II a pense mourir, He had like to have died. 

Penser is sometimes an active transitive verb in French, and 
does not, therefore, require the use of the preposition a. The 
preposition of, which accompanies it in English, is then trans- 
lated into French by die. 

Ex.: due pensez-vous de cela? What do you think of that ? 
Je vous dirai ce que j'en pense, 
J will tell you what I think of it. 

Valoir mieux signifies to be better. 
Ex. : II vaudrait mieux vous taire, 

It would be better for you to be si'ent. 
Ii valait mieux pour vous qu'il perdit, 
It was better for you that he should lose. 
II vaudra mieux que vous y alliez, 
It will be better for you to go there. 

Y prefixed to voir, gives to that verb the signification of to 
be able to see. 

Ex, : Je n'y vois pas, J cannot see. 

OF THE CONJUNCTION que. 

Remark. The conjunction que produces a great number of 
gallicisms. 

In order to give more expression to a sentence construed 
with the verb to be, we may use this verb as an impersonal, 
giving it the pronoun ce for its nominative, and placing after it 
the true nominative, connected with the verb by the conjunc- 
tion que. 

Ex. : C'est une funeste passion que le jeu, 
Gambling is a terrible passion. 
Q-u'est-ce que cela? ) What i, thatl 

(du'est-ce que c'est que cela ? ) 

The verb to be is sometimes omitted. 

Ex. : Quelle bete que cette homme ! 
What afoot that man is ! 



GALLICISMS. 369 

The same conjunction que supplies many English words, 
besides those which have been mentioned, as wiil be seen in 
the following sentences. 

Ex. : Le jour qu'iI mourut, The day when he died. 

Il a. ri v i que je sortais, He arrived as I was going out. 

On le prendrait sur ie fait Qu'il ne rougirait pas, 
Though he were laken in the fact, yet he would not blush. 
Remark. A complete list of gallicisms cannot be placed in 
a Grammar. It is in a dictionary th tt all the gallicisms ought 
to be found. The most useful, however, have been given in 
what precedes; and the following phrases may be proposed 
as a model for m my others that are not less important to know, 
and the explanation of which would be too long. 

PHRASES OF SOME GALLICISMS. 

Je suis a vous dans un moment I will attend you immediately 

Je ne saurais qu'y faire I cannot help it 

II me tarde d'aller a la campagne J long to go to the countnj 

Je ne laisse pasd'ecrire I will to rite for all that 

L'avez-vo is f ;ir? Tant s'en faut Have you done it? Far from it 

Comment se fait il-que . . . ? Hiw is it that . . . ? 

De quoi s'agit-il ? What is the matter! 

II s'agit de, or que .... The matter is .... 

Pas que je sac he Not that I know of 

Est-ce a M. N. que j'ai l'honneur Have I the honour to speak to Air. N.T 

de parler? 
Tenez-vous c<>mme II f iut Sit up siraight 

A le faire je voudrais y gagner If I do it I wish I could gain some- 

quelque chose thing by it 

II ne tient qu'a mot de vous battre Tt is in my power to hpnt ynu 
Clue dites-vous de nouveau? What news do you tell ? 

II y a la je ne sais quoi d'obscur There is somewhat of obscurity 
II n'y a pas jnsqu'aux enfans, qui Even children wilt meddle with it 

ne s'en melent 
II s'en ftut bien qu'il soit savant He is far from being a learned man 
II n'est rien moins que gen^reux He is fan* from being generous 
Oil en veut-il venir ? What does he aim at ? 

II y va de votre vie Your life is concerned in it 

Je n'en puis plus I am exhausted 

Je m'en prendrai a vous / will lay the blame upon you 

Vous vous y prenez bien You do it the right way 

II s'y prend mal He does it the wrong way 

Votre frere m'en veut Your brother is angry with me 

Je ne saurais vous le dire I cannot tell you (Tt is not m my 

powrr to tell you.) 
Vous chantez a ravir You sing extremely well 

II a manque de parole He did not keep his rrord 

Vous vous habilkz a la Franchise You dress after the French fashion 
]Les m^chans seront pun is de Dieu God will punish the tricked 

N. B. The preposition par must not be used before the word Duy. 



§70 



CONSTRUCTION. 



Mourir pour mourir je reste ici If I have to die, I choose to stay here 

Pour fort qu'il soit il ne portera However strong he may he, he ioUI 

pas ce fardeau not carry that burden 

II est toujours par les rues He is always about the streets 

Je ne sais rien de cela / know nothing about that 

II a agi en homme He acted as a man 

Je l'aime d'autant plus qu'il est I love him the more, or so much the 

tres-sobre more, because he is a very sober man 

Je le crois d'autant moms que vous J believe it less because you have not 

ne I'avez pas vu seen it 

Q,uind-meme vous l'affirmeriez en- Should you affirm it again and again, 

core plus, je ne vouscroirais pas J would not believe you. 

II Start d'une fierte qui pouvait lui He had a pride that might have become 

devenir funeste falal to him 

Ii est mechant comme la peste He is as wicked as the plague 

II fin it. par y aller He at last went there 

Vous I'avez echappee belle You had anarrow escape 

Cela ne se peut pas That cannot be 

Q,u'avez-vous? What is the matter with you ? 

Ctu'a-t-il a l'oeil ? What is the matter with his eye ? 

Qu^ui I ? \ Wlmi is the matter ? 

En pareil cas In such a case 

a point nomm^ When wanted 

a grand pas With long s f eps 

a pas lents With sloio steps 

Tout has ) Ltiv, in a low tone 

a voix basse S With a low voice. 



REMARKS ON FRENCH CONSTRUCTION. 

Hemark i. When the verb etre, followed by a verb or a 
noun, comes after ce qui, ce que, ce dont, followed by a verb, 
the verb etre must be preceded by the pronoun ce. 

Ce que j'aime c'est d'etre seul, What Hike is to be alone. 
Ce qu'il y a de plus curieux c'est, That ivhich is most curious, is a 
un tableau de Raphael, picture from Raphael. 

But should etre be followed by an adjective, the ce must be 
suppressed. 

Ce dont vous parlez est horrible What you speak of is horrible. 

Remark 2. The adverbs oui and non are sometimes used 
like pronouns, that is to say, in order to represent an affirma- 
tive or negative sentence, after the verbs croire, penser, report- 
(ire, parier, dire, and others. These adverbs, when used thus, 
ought always to be preceded by the conjunction que. 

Ex.: Je pense que oui, I think so. 

II dit que non, He said no. 



CONSTRUCTION. 371 

Remark 3. An adjective or a past participle cannot come 
immediately after the words quand, si, tout, and the demon- 
strative pronouns, cdui, celle, ceux, celles, unless it is joined 
with these words by the verb to be. 

Je suis bien qu\nd je suis seul, lam well token alone. 

Je le ferai si c'est possible, I wil do it if possible. 

Ceux qui ont ere deja donnes, Those already given. 

Remark 4. The adverbof quantity, assez, followed by pour, 

corresponds to so as, followed by a verb. 

Ex. : II n'est pas assez mediant pour vous trahir, 
He is not so wicked as to betray yon. 

OBSERVATIONS ON SOME FRENCH VERBS COMPARED WITH THE 
. ENGLISH. 

Marier, epouser. to marry. 

The latter expresses to become the husband or the wife ; the 
former means to join two persons in marriage. 

Se rappeler, se souvenir de, to r- member. 

Se rappeler wants a direct objective, while se souvenir is 
always followed by the preposition de. 

Entendre, to hear (any noise) ; 

Entendre parler de, to hear of (any circumstance) ; 

Entendre dire que . . . to hear that. 

To hear of a person is translated by avoir des nouvelles de. 

The student must pay great attention to what precedes, as 
the verb entendre is generally used very improperly by 
foreigners. 

Reussir, succeder, to succeed. 

Reussir is to be successful; succeder \s to succeed another 
person, to come after. 

Nourrir, donner a manger, to feed. 

Nourrir signifies to nourish, and is generally applied to a 
permanent habit. Donner d manger is to feed, to give food, 
Ex. : Allez donner a manger a mon cheval, 
Go and feed my horse. 

Douter, se douter de, to doubt. 

Douter is to doubt the truth of something ; se douter de sig- 
nifies to have an idea that the thing may be true. 

Se moquer de, rire de, to laugh at. 

Se moquer de is generally applied to persons, manners, or 
any thing relating to the looks or words of a person. 

Hire de can also be used for persons, but is the only one that 
can be properly applied to things. 

Ex. : Je riais de cette enseigne, J was lavghing at that sign. 



372 CONSTRUCTION. 

Vivre, demeurer, to live. 

Vivre means to exist, demeurer to reside. 

Retourner, rendre, to return. 

Retourner means, to come back ; and rendre, to give back 
to restore. 

Croire, penser, to believe, to think. 

Croire is the only one of these two verbs that can be made 
reflective. 

Ex. : I thought myself happy* Je me croyais heureux. 

Comprendre, apprendre, to understand. 

Comprendrc is to conceive, to comprehend; apprendre is to 
hear, to have been told. 
Ex. : J'ai appris que vous £iiez tombe, I understood that you, had fallen. 
Garde r, tenir, to keep. 

Garder is to watch, or to make one's self the master of; 
tenir is to hold. 

Tenir une maison, un magasin, means, to keep a house, to 
keep a store. 

Garder une maison, un magasin, signifies, to watch a 
house, a store. 

Arreter, boucher, to stop. 

Arriter is to stop an object that moves ; boucher is to stop 
a hole. 

Porter, mener, to carry, and compounds. 

Porter, and its compounds, are used when the person or thing 
carried is lifted from the ground; and, mener, audits com- 
pounds, when it is led or taken from one place to another. 

Prendre, mener, to take. 

Prendre is to take possessim of; mener signifies to lead 
from one place to another. 

Marcher, se promener, to walk. 

Marcher is the action of going, on foot, from one place to 
another ; se promener signifies, to go out for the purpose of 
taking an airing, and has that signification in the following 
instances. 

'en voiture "| 
en cabriolet I to take 
en traineau 1* a ride 

J 



<Sp nrnmenpr ) en iraim 
be promener ^ cheva] 



in a carriage 
in a gig 
in a sleigh 
on horseback 



en bateau > to take < in a boat 

en canot \ a sa ^ i zn a pleasure-boat 



CONSTRUCTION. 373 

Remark. Observe that to walk, to ride; to sail, to a place, 
must be translated by alter and not by se promener. 

Ex. : I will walk down to the store, 
JHrai au magasin. 
Let us sail to the bay, 
Mlons cl la bale en bateau. 
Will you ride to Harlem ? 
Voulez-vous alter jus qu\l Harlem acheval ! 

The verb alter answers also for the verb to go out, when the 
place wl&re the nominative of the verb goes, follows this 
verb. 

Ex. : He went out to the garden, II est alle dans le jardin. 

Prendre garde, to take care. 

Prendre garde, followed by an infinitive, signifies to take 
care not, and does not require to be followed by the negative, 
as in English. 

Ex. : Prenez garde de tomber, Take care not to fall. 

(See what was said on this verb, Remark 7th, page 306.) 

Manger, to eat, cannot be followed in French by the words 
corresponding to dinner, breakfast, supper, and the like. 
The verbs diner, dejeuner, souper, must be used instead of 
these English expressions. 

Alter is often used for to be, when speaking of the health. 

Ex.: Comment cela va-t-il? How goes it? 

OF SOME ENGLISH VERBS. 

To get. 

This verb has no corresponding verb in French, and is there- 
fore translated by different expressions, according to its sense. 
Its past participle, got, is entirely suppressed in French after 
the verb to have. Je Pai, I have got it. 

When followed by a preposition or an adverb, as, to get in, 
to get out, this verb is generally expressed in French by a 
verb which answers both for the verb and the preposition, and 
which can be found in dictionaries. 

To go and get is expressed by alter chercher. 

To get, followed by a past participle, is translated into 
French, either by the verb etre, which forms a passive verb 
with the past participle that follows it, or by a pronominal 
verb. 



Ex, He got drowned, j.gftg: 
32 



374 ANGLICISMS. 

Remark. Much distinction should be made between the 
passive verbs and the compound tenses of the reflective, re- 
ciprocal, and pronominal verbs, always construed with a 
double pronoun, and formed with the auxiliary to be. 

The latter express an action which took place, and the 
former the state resulting from that action. 

Thus, Je me suis enrhume, means, I took cold ; 
And, Je suis enrhume, means, / have a cold. 

The same distinction must be made between thai following 
phrases, and the like. 

Elle s'est mariee, and Elle est mariee, 
II s^est noye, and II est noye. 

To happen, arriver. 

This verb is always an impersonal in French, and can take 
an indirect objective. 

II lui arriva de rire, He happened to laugh. 

II arriva que mon oncle mourut, It happened that my uncle died. 

Sometimes to happen is rendered by venir a. 

S'ils viennent a se quereller, if they happen to quarrel. 

To become, devenir. 

To become, devenir, followed by of, must be rendered in 
French as in the following examples. 

Glu'est devenu votre frere ? 

What is become of your brother ? 

Je ne sais pas ce qu'il est devenu, 
I do not know what is become of him. 

OF THE ENGLISH AUXILIARIES, USED ALONE. 

The English make great use of their auxiliary verbs, em- 
ployed alone, to affirm, deny, ask questions, or express sur- 
prise. The French cannot do the same in their language, 
either because the sense of their phrases must be more com- 
plete, or because they use, as active or neuter verbs, some of 
the verbs corresponding to English auxiliaries. If it be con- 
sidered that many of these verbs are used in English to keep 
up the conversation, it will seem natural that foreigners should 
be sometimes at a loss to represent these verbs in French. Di- 
rections must be given here. 

1. The verbs, I am, I am not, you have, you have not, they 
will, they will not, you shall, you shall not, you did, you did 
not, <$c, used to express affirmation or negation, are often 



ANGLICISMS. 375 

simply translated by oui and non. In other instances, the 
word that is understood in English, is used in French ; or the 
adverbs certainement, certainly ; pas du tout, not at all, or 
others suggested by the impression of the moment, may be 
used. 

2. Are you ? are you not ? did they ? did they not ? will 
you? will you not? used to ask questions, may be translated 
by vraimeni, truly ? rfest-ce-pas ? is it not ? &c. 

3. The same auxiliaries, placed after another verb that ex- 
presses an action performed, and used in order to know 
whether the person to whom the question is asked has per- 
formed the same action or not, are simply translated by, Et 
vous, et lid. et elle ? fyc. 

Ex. : I have dined, have you? J'ai dine, et vous ? 

4. The verbs will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, 
wight, and must, which are represented by peculiar verbs in 
French, are generally translated into French by these verbs, 
even when used as auxiliaries in English. 

Ex. : I will, Je veux Men. 

He cannot, II ne pent pas. 

5. Most generally the French sentence is formed as if the 
verb understood had been expressed in the English sentences; 
or, after to be, to have, by simply adding the objective to the 
verb. 

Je crois cela, le croyez-vous? I believe that, do you ? 

Je ne le crois pas, / do not. 

Etes-vous malade ? Je le suis, Are you sick ? I am. 

A-t-elle mon livre ? Elle Pa, Has she my book ? She has. 

Remark. When after the verb to be, an adverb of place 
is understood in the English sentence, that adverb must be 
expressed in French. 

Est-elle a la campagne? oui, elle y est, 
Is she in the country ? yes, she is. 

EXPLANATIONS ON SOME WORDS WHICH MAY PRESENT DIFFICULTY. 

Do not use indiscriminately, matin, jour, soir, an, and 
matinee, journee, soiree, annee. These latter express the 
whole duration of the morning, day, evening, and year, 
while the former are used when we speak of any part of the 
morning, day, <$c. Thus we say, 

Je passerai la journGe, la soiree avec vous, 

I will spend the day, the evening with you, and, 

II vient le soir, He comes in the evening* 



376 GALLICISMS. 

The preposition in, which is suppressed in the above sen- 
tence, is expressed by de in the following, and the like. 

Gluatre heures du matin, Four o'clock in the morning. 
In reckoning, we generally use jour, an, fyc. 

Trois jours, vingt ans. 

People, peuple, gens, monde. 

Peuple is people, nation ; 'gens is a certain class of people; 
as, les braves gens, the good people 5 monde means a number 
of persons gathered in the same place. 

II y avait beaucoup de monde, There were many persons. 

Place, lieu, endroit, place. 

Place means seat, the place of a thing, room, square. 

Allez a voire place. J'ai laisse de la place. 

Cest une bonne place. Ce livre h' est pas a sa place. 

II demeure dans la place Roy ale. 

The English word place, used to mean a city, may be ren- 
dered by pays, or by endroit when it means a small town. 

Lieu, endroit are used to express a place, somewhere, in 
some part of a room, a house, a city, or the world, or any 
where. Lieu is more poetical than endroit. 

Cherchez dans quelqu 1 autre androii. 
Nous etions dans un lieu desert. 
Je Vai mis dans tin endroit. 
II etait dans un endroit eloigne. 

Pays, campagne, patrie, contree, country. 

Pays is a country, an extent of land, under the same form 
of government ; campagne is the country, the field, out of 
town ; patrie signifies a man's native land ; and contree cox- 
responds to region. 

Piece, morceau, piece, (apart of a whole.) 

Piece is a piece to stop a hole; and, when followed by the 
noun which expresses its nature, conveys the idea of a larger 
quantity than morceau. 

Un morceau de viande is a piece of meat that a person can 
eat ; une piece de viande, a very large piece of meat. 

Parent and relation. 

The French word parent, means not only the father and 
mother, but all the persons of a family ; relation means in- 
tercourse. 



GALLICISMS. 377 

Voisin, prochain, neighbour. 

. Voisin is a person who lives close by us; it has its femi- 
nine voisine. Prochain is our neighbour , our br other , as 
used in the gospel. 

Negotiant, marchand, merchant. 

The French word marchand does not correspond to the 
English word merchant, but signifies seller ; as, tin marchand 
de musique, a music seller ; merchant is expressed in French 
by negotiant. 

The words man, woman, boy, girl, employed in the sense 
of seller, are generally translated into French by marchand, 
marchande. 

Thus, le marchand dliuitres, la marchande de pommes, 
are more commonly used for the oysterman and the apple 
woman, than Vhomme aux huitres et lafemme aux poi, 

N. B. Jeune homme, young man, is formed of two words, 
which we are so well accustomed to pronounce together, with 
the elision required by the meeting of the e mute with the h 
mute, that in the plural the additional s which prevents the 
elision, seems to produce a harsh sound that we avoid by 
using jeunes gens, young people. Jeunes gens can likewise 
be understood for young people of both sexes. 

In the same manner jeune personne, which signifies a young 
person, is only applied tu a young lady. It is the same in 
the plural of these words. 

Alors, done, then. 

Done is only used to draw a conclusion, and when it can 
be supplied by therefore. It is generally placed after the 
verb, or in compound tenses after the auxiliary. 

II est done ruine, He is then ruined. 

Remark 1. The past participle left, used after a noun, is 
translated into French by encore, as follows; or the whole 
phrase is construed with the impersonal neuter verb, rester. 

T t , t « ( J'en ai encore trois. 

I have three left, \ Ilm , enrestetrois . 

Remark 2. The adjective pretty, used to modify a fol- 
lowing adjective or adverb, is translated by the adverb assez. 

He is pretty tall, II est assez grand. 

Pretty well, Assez Men. 

Remark 3. Right and wrong, which, in some instances, 
have no proper correspondent in French, must be translated 
by analogy with the following sentences. 

32* 



378 



GALLICISMS* 



You did right or wrong, 

That is the right way, 

That is the wrong way, 

You applied to the right per- 
son, 

You applied to the wrong per- 
son, 

The right side, 

The wrong side, 



Vous avez fait Men on mat, 

Cest comme cela or ca. 

Ce ri>est pas comme cela or ca. 

Vous vous etes adresse u qui il fal- 

lait. 
Vous ne vous etes pas adresse a qui 

il fallait. 
Uendroit. 
Venvers. 



Remark 4. Both, when a conjunction, is used as follows: 
Both young and rich, 
Both by sea and land, 



Taut jeune que riche, or merely 

jeune el riche. 
Par mer et par terre or tant par mer 
que par terre. 



A LIST OF ENGLISH PHRASES WHICH REQUIRE PARTICULAR 
ATTENTION. 



That is immaterial to me , 

No matter, never mind 

I do not care 

Shall I procure a pen ? 

I cannot afford to buy that 

I cannot afford that at that price 

Can you spare a moment? 

I can spare that pen 

Move down ; we are too crowded 

here 
What do you mean ? 
I did not mean to put that 

She is practising, (on any instru- 
ment) 

Can you ascertain how far he has 
gone? 

I continued motionless 

They conquered an immense 
country 

We conquered the Turks 

The battle was fought 

Who told you of it ? 

I will call on you 

Give us a call 

What does it avail me to know ? 

What avails learning without 
virtue ? 

Take those ladies home 

I took a journey 



Cela m?est indifferent; c'est egal; 

c'est la mime chose 
Cest egal; n'y faites pas attention 
Cela m'est egal 

Dois-je oiler chercher une plume ? 
Je rial pas les moyens d'acheter cela 
Je ne peux pas vendre cela a ce pri& 
Pouvez-vous disposer d'un moment ? 
Je peux vous donner cette plume 
Je n'ai pas besoin de cette plume 
Poussez-vous ; nous sommes trop 

presses ici 
Que voulez-vous dire ? 
Je n'avais pas Vintention de mettre 

cela 
Elle etudie sa lecon de musique 

Pouvez-vous savoir jusqu'ou il est 

alle ? 
J'etais toujours sans mouvement 
lis conquirent un pays immense 

Nous vainquimes les Turcs 

La baltaillefut donnee 

Qui vous Va dit ? 

Je passerai chez vous 

Venez nous voir 

Ji quoi me sert de savoir ? 

A quoi sert la science sans la vertm t 

Conduisez ces dames chez elles 
Jefis un voyage 



GALLICISMS. 



379 



You must be silent 

Do not move 

You always shake the table 

Do it as long as you please 

I will try to do that better 
Try to come by six o'clock 
Can you supply us with coal ? 
It is as much as to say that I intend- 
ed to cheat you 
He cannot make himself under- 
stood 
I will thank you for the slate 

You never mind what you are 
about 

Do you attend the French church ? 

I will attend to it immediately 

Why do you stop reading? 

You hurt me ; stop ! 

She does not improve in her writ- 
ing 

That is improved 

I might as well go there 

I give up 

You must not give up to them 

I think I mentioned it to you 

Did you find him in? 

What is the matter? 

What is the matter with you ? 

What is the matter with your eye ? 

I can't help it 

What did he sell it for? 

Let them come in 

He lives next door 

The book which lies under the 
table 

I was lying down 

She was sitting 

Try to have it ready against my 
coming 

IWill you make or mend a pen for 
me? 

Do it for my sake 

I do not feel well 

How long is it since you saw him 
last? 

You look as if something had hap- 
pened to you 

I would rather stay 

Had it not been for me 

This amount will answer 



II nefaut rien dire 

Ne bougez pas 

Vousfaites toujours remuer la table 

Faites-le aussi long-tems qxCil vous 

plaira 
J^essaierai de It fair 'e mieux 
Tdchez de venir a six heures 
Pouvez-vous nous ■four air du charbon ? 
Vest comme si vous disiez que je vou- 

lais vous tromper 
II ne peut pas se faire comprendre 

Je vous serai oblige, si vous me don- 

nez Vardoise 
Vous ne faites jamais attention a ce 

que vousfaites 
Allez-vous a Veglise Francaise ? 
Je vais ripen occuper tout de suite 
Pourquoi cessez-vcus de lire 7 
Vous me faites mal ; finissez 
Elle ne fait pas de progres dans son 

i oritur e 
Cela va mieux 

11 vaudrait tout autant quefy allasse 
J'y renonce 
It ne fad pas leur cider 
Je era is que je vous en ai parte 
L'avez-vous trouvi chez hit ? 
De quoi s'agit-il ? qxCy-a-t-U ? 
Qm' avez-vous 1 
Qw' avez-vous a Vail ? 
Je ne peux pas faire autrement 
Pour combien Va4-il rendu ? 
Faites les entrer 
II demeure a la maison oVd cote 
Le livre qui est sous la table 

J'etais couche 

Elle it ait assise 

Tdchez que ce soit pret pour quandje 

viendrai 
Voidez-vous me tailler une plume ? 

Faites-le pour Vamour de moi 

Je ne me sens pas Men 

Combien y a-t-il que vous ne Vavez 

vu ? 
On dirait quHl vous est arrivequelque 

chose 
J'aimerais mieux r ester 
Si ce n- avail ite pour moi 
Cette somme suffira 



380 



GALLICISMS. 



At the age of fifteen 
Let see 

Go on ; come on 
Here; take 



A I'age de quinze am 

Attendez 

Allons 

Tenez 



MANNER OF EXPRESSING THE HOURS OF THE DAT IN FRENCH. 



midi 

minuit 

une heure 

deux heures 

deux heures et un quart 

midi et demi 

minuit moins un quart 

trois heures et demie 

quatre heures moins un quart 

cinq heures et vingt minutes 

six heures moins dix minutes 

sept heures, &c. 



12 o'clock (at noon) 
12 o'clock (at night) 

1 o'clock 

2 o'clock 

a quarter after 2 
half-past 12 
a quarter of 12 
half -past 3 
a quarter of 4 
20 minutes after 5 
10 minutes of 6 
7 o'clock, fyc. 



FINIS. 



381 



VOCABULARY. 



The words contained in the Exercises of this Grammar, 
are to be found in a dictionary • but it must be observed that, 
in some instances, the word found by the learner would not 
well correspond to the English word placed in the Exercise. 
A Vocabulary of these words has therefore been given here. 
It will be, however, important to add, that when looking in the 
dictionary, the learner should know to what part of speech the 
word looked for belongs. The negligence of this would occa- 
sion many faults. If the word, the French of which is to be 
found, be the' preterit or participle of a verb, the learner must 
look for the infinitive present of this verb. 

PAGE 

63 Farmer, fermier; milliner, modiste ; plane-tree, platane ; corpora- 
tion, corporation; adjutant, adjudant ; broker, courtier ; green- 
turf, gazon; goods, marchandises. 

65 Amount, montant ; third, Hers; work (written work) outrage; 

United States, Etats-unis; speech, discours; landlord, proprie- 
taire ; gig, cabriolet. 

66 Bean, haricot ; weight, poids; rest, reste. 

67 Copy, (of a book,) exemplaire; merchant, negotiant ; clerk, com- 

mis ; Hour, farine; Henriad, Henriade, (fern.) 

69 Pine-apple, ananas; fire-cracker, petard. 

70 Picture, tableau ; helm, gouvernail. 

72 Respected, respecie ; situated, sitne -, pointed, pointu; satisfied, 

satisfait. 

74 Presbyterian, presbyterien ; beet, better ave. 

76 Deceitful, trompeur. 

77 Pain, douleur. 

78 Jesuits, Jesuites. 

79 Waistcoat, gilet ; breast-pin, epingle ; watch, montre ; carriage, 

voiture; dress, robe; amiable, aimable. 

80 Bill, compte ; to preserve, conserver; for ever, pour toujour s ; to 

mend, raccommoder ; exercise, theme. 
84 Dollar, dollar, gourde ; cent, sou; about, environ; store, maga sin. 
86 Sentence, phrase ; rank, rang. 

89 To cry, pleurer; indebted, redevable; misunderstanding, djpi 

gutter, ruisseau. 

90 Premium, prix; bank, banque. 
154 To waltz, valser. 

159 To perform, jouer; rose-colour, couleur de rose. 
162 Quartette, quatuor; deficit, deficit. 



382 VOCABULARY. 



165 Back-shop, arriere-boutique ; fore-roof, avant-toit; bat, chauve- 
souris ; freemason, franc-macon ; pocket-book, porte-feuille ; 
boot-jack, tire-botte. 

169 Pamphlet, pamflet. 

170 Country, campagne ; ball, bal; constable, huissier; country, pays, 
172 Story, histoire. 

175 "Box, boite ; crossed, traverse; pack, meute; sportsman, chasseur; 
bunch of grapes, grappe de raisins ; overwhelmed, accable ; 
nonsense, betises. 

178 Eagerness, empressement ; pleasant, agreable; lump, grain. 

179 Apology, excuse; German, Mlemand. 

181 Buckskin, peau de daim; goat, chevre; beaver, castor; sheet, 

feuille; lace, dentelle ; to return, rendre ; to cross, traverser; 
air, (followed by gun,) vent. 

182 Bill, billet ; manufacturer, fabricant ; sign, enseigne ; segar, cigare, 

(masc.) ; clam, palourde; dealer, mar chand. 

183 Holy Land, Terre Sainte. 

185 Bounded on, borne a; frozen, glacial ; Mantique, le Volga, le Don, 

le Danube; le Rhin, VElbe; Germany, Jillemagne, la Vistule, la 
Loire, la Seine, le Rhone, la Garonne, VEbre, le Tage, le Douro, 
le Po, la Tamise, la Severn, le Schannon ; Scandinavian Moun- 
tains, les Doffrines; Crapel, krapack; Pyrennean Mountains, 
Pyrenees; west wind, zephyr; to temper, temper er; le Havre , 
la Martinique, la Havane ; Peru, Perou ; iEtna, Etna. 

186 Cloth, drap; crown, ecu; string, corde ; piece, morceau. 

187 Place, lieu. 

188 Endowed, douL 

189 Novel, roman. 

191 To prosecute, persecuter; vampire, vampire; to suck, sucer; 
trunk, malle. 

193 To introduce, presenter; partner, assocU; nun, religieuse ; un* 

known, inconnu ; countryman, compatriote ; gambler, joueur, 

194 Journey, voyage ; yard, yard. 

195 City-hall, hoteUde-ville. 

197 Stream, ruisseau; oration, oraison ; dictation, dictee; parsings 

analyse. 
200 Steam-boat, bateau-a~vapeur ; album, album. 
203 Mass, messe ; disposition, caractire; foe to, ennemi de. 
207 Clean, propre ; course, cours. 

209 Board, planche ; tall, grand, 

210 Expense, depense. 
212 To marry, epouser. 
214 Pleased, charmi. 

216 Daily fare, ordinaire; boarding-house, pension, 

217 Bowed down, courbi; stick, buche. 

218 Disengaged, libre. 

219 To spend, (time,) passer. 

221 To yield, (to bring forth,) rapporter. 

223 To bow to, saluer. 

224 In spite of, malgri. 

229 Part, parti ; to trust, sefier a ; experiment^ experience. 



VOCABULARY. 383 

PAGE 

1232 Burying-ground, cimetiere ; exchange, bourse. 

233 First, premier ement ; to gain, remporter ; to prepare, se preparer. 

234 To mend, (a pen,) talller ; comfort, bien-etre. 
237 To apply, s'adresser ; wagon, char-a-banc. 

241 To daub, barbouiller ; to stop, boucher ; wonder, merveille ; to pull 

out, arr acker ; to trade, (to walk,) marcher. 

242 To cast down, baisser ; to box a person's ears, souffleter. 
245 Relative, parent. 

250 Tactician, tacticien. 

N. B. It is presumed that the learner is now far enough advanced to 
be able to select the proper word out of those given by the dictionary. 
The Vocabulary that precedes contains, besides, nearly all those winch 
might have presented any difficulty. 



CONTENTS. 



Preliminary Observations 
Pronunciation 



PAGE 

13 
21 



PART I. 

Chapter I. — Of the parts of speech ..... 
Of the noun or substantive 4 

Of the gender and number . 

Rules on the gender ........ 

Gender of nouns according to their signification 
Gender of nouns according to their termination 
Chapter II. — Of the French articles and prepositions de and a 

Of the possessive case 

Of the partitive article 

Rule on the partitive article, and explanation showing when some 

cannot be expressed by du, de la, des . . . 
Rule on the partitive article after a negative verb 
Rule on the partitive article after an interr.o-negaf.ive verb 
Of the formation of the plural of French substantives 
Chapter III. — Of the adjectives . 
General rule on the formation of the feminine and plural of French 

adjectives . . . ... 

Of the place of French adjectives 

Exceptions to the formation of the feminine of French adjectives 

Exceptions to the formation of the plural of French adjectives 

Of the possessive adjectives . . 

Of the demonstrative adjectives 

Of the adjectives quel, quelle, what, which 

Of the numeral adjectives. Cardinal numbers 

Rules on the above adjectives 

Of the ordinal numbers 

Chapter IV. — Of the pronouns 

Of the nominative and objective 

Personal pronouns 

Personal pronouns nominatives to the verbs 

Personal pronouns when objectives to the verbs 

Of the place of the personal pronouns when objective to the verbs 

Of the French pronouns qui and que .... 

Chapter V. — Of the verb ... 

Of the auxiliaries. Conjugation of the verb avoir, to have 

The use of the past tenses explained .... 

The verb avoir, negatively 

The verb avoir, interrogatively 

Of the verb avoir, interro-negatively . 

The verb etre, to be ....... 

The verb 6tre 9 negatively 




48 
48 
48 
49 
49 
51 
62 
65 
66 

66 
66 
67 
6S 
70 

70 
71 

:-2 

77 

78 

79 

80 

81 

83 

84 

86 

86 

87 

® 

8j 

88 

89 

90 

91 

14 

95 

M 

96 

1)7 

99 



33 



386 CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

The verb etre, interrogatively and interro-negatively . . 100 

Of the conjugations 100 

Important observation 101 

First conjugation, in er ; parler, to speak .... 101 

Directions given for conjugating verbs 105 

Explanation on verbs ending in cer, ger 105 

Explanation on verbs ending in yer, those, the penultimate sylla- 
ble of which ends in e or e ...... 106 

Of the negative, interrogative and interro-negative verbs . 107 

Negative verbs ; alter, to go, negatively . . . .107 

Interrogative verbs ; envoyer, to send 112 

Interro-negative verbs ; lisser, to weave . . . .114 

Rules on the place of the nominative of an interrogative verb, 

when that nominative is a noun 114 

Rules on the place of the nominative of an interro-negative verb, 

when that nominative is a noun 115 

Of the interrogation with Est-ce que ? 115 

Formation of the tenses of verbs, applicable to all the verbs of the 

French language 116 

Second conjunction, in ir ; punir, to punish . . . .117 
Third conjugation, in evoir ; recevoir, to receive . . .119 
Fourth conjugation, in re; r entire, to return . . . .120 
Of the different kinds of verbs; of active verbs . . . 121 

Of neuter verbs 121 

A list of the neuter verbs which take the auxiliary etre . . 121 

Of passive verbs 122 

Of pronominal verbs 123 

Of reflective verbs 123 

Of reciprocal verbs 125 

Of essential pronominal verbs 125 

Conjugation of a pronominalverb ; se repentir, to repent . 126 

Pronominal verbs interrogative or negative .... 128 

Of the verb s J en alter, to go away 128 

Of i he impersonal verbs . . . . . . .129 

Of the impersonal neuter verbs 129 

Of the impersonal passive verbs 130 

Of the impersonal pronominal verbs 130 

Of the irregular verbs 131 

Remarks on irregular verbs 131 to 134 

Irregular verbs of the first conjugation . . . .132 

Irregular verbs of the second conjugation, first list . . 135 

Derivatives from the above verbs 136 

Irregular verbs of the second conjugation, second list . . 137 

Derivatives from these verbs 138 

Irregular verbs of the second conjugation, third list . . 338 

Irregular verbs of the third conjugation, first list . . . 140 

Derivatives of these verbs . 142 

Irregular verbs of the third conjugation, second list . . 142 

Irregular verbs of the fourth conjugation, first list . . . 143 
Derivatives of these verbs . . , . . . • 144 
Irregular verbs of the fourth conjugation, second list . . 146 



CONTENTS. 387 

i 

PAOE 

Derivatives of these verbs 147 

Irregular verbs of the fourth conjugation, third list . . 148 
Chapter VI. — Of the participle, preposition, adverb, conjunction, 

and interjection 149 

Of the participle 149 

Of the preposition . . . . . . . . .150 

Of the adverb . . . . ■ 151 

A list of adverbs of quantity 153 

Of the conjunction, 154 

Of interjections 154 

PART II. 

Chapter I. — Of substantives 155 

Of the substantives which have two forms and two genders . 155 

Of the substantives which have one form and two genders . 155 
Of the nouns which have but one gender and are applied to both 

sexes 155 

Of substantives applied to things, that are of both genders, accord- 
ing to circumstances 156 

A list of the substantives which are of both genders according to 

their acceptation . . 157 

Of number. Formation of the plural of proper names of men 1 59 
Words singular in French and plural in English . . .160 

Words plural in French and singular in English . . . 160 

Words, the number of which might present some difficulty . 161 

1 Words that do not take the form of the plural . . . 162 

Of compound nouns 162 

Of the formation of the plural of the French compound nouns 163 

Chapter II. — Of the articles. General rule . . . 165 
General principle . . . . . . . .165 

' Words which determine substantives besides the articles . 166 

Of the use of the definite article 167 

Of the use of the partitive article 167 

Important exception . 168 

Expressions which take the article in French . . . 169 

Rules on the partitive article.— Rule 1, before an adjective . 170 

Rule 2, after a negative verb 172 

Rule 3, after the preposition de 173 

Continuation of the Rule 3. 175 

Rule 4, when a noun takes no article . . . . .176 
Of the English nouns used as ad jtctives . . . .179 

s Of the words man, woman, boy, and girl, used for seller . . 18] 

jOf the number of nouns after the prepositions de> a and en . 181 
Of the use or suppression of the article with some particular 

classes of words .... 

With proper names of men . 
With proper names of countries, cities, &c. 
With nouns used when speaking of time 
> Of the nouns used in apposition 
i Of two nouns used in apposition, separated by a verb 



182 

183 

186 
187 

189 



CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Of nouns used in apposition, with pronouns of the third person 

nominative to the verb to be 192 

General rule on the above subject 193 

Of the change of the articles and prepositions, and omission of the 
article 

Of the omission of the article 

Of the words monsieur, madame, mademoiselle, fyc. 

Chapter III. — Of the adjectives 

Remarks on a few particular adjectives .... 

Of the agreement of adjectives with more than one noun 

Of the words that are both substantives and adjectives 

Of the place of adjectives 

A list of the adjectives that have two meanings, according to their 
situations with regard to substantives 

Remarks on the place of adjectives 

Of the degrees of signification of the adjective 

Of the positive 

Of the comparative 

Of the words which are comparatives in themselves 

Of the superlative 

Of the relative superlative ....... 

Of the superlative absolute 

Remarks on tres and le plus, le moins 

Regimen of the adjectives 

A list of adjectives which do not receive in French the same pre- 
position which follows them in English . . . 215 

Remark on the adjectives which require a or de, according to cir- 
cumstances 

Remark on adjectives that are followed by two prepositions 

Of adjectives of measure . ... 

Adjectives of number 

Of collective, distributive, and proportional numbers 

Chapter IV. — Of the pronouns. Personal pronouns 

Particular rules on the pronouns : 

Of the personal pronouns, objectives to prepositions 

Remark on the neuter verbs followed by it, after which the objective 
to that preposition cannot be used as the indirect objective 
to the verb 

General rule relating to the use of personal pronouns 

Rules on the use of several pronouns or nouns, and pronouns, no- 
minatives to the same verb ...... 

Other instances in which personal pro'ilbuns ought to be used as if 
they w T ere objectives to prepositions . 

Of the pronouns myself, thyself, tyc. . . . . 

Of the French pronoun en 

Of the pronouns se and soi 

Of the pronouns en and y ..... 

Of the place of two pronouns, one being objective direct, and the 
other indirect . I 

Remark on the application of these rules with some of the prono- 
minal verbs , . . ...... 

Remark on the place of en and y ..... 



CONTENTS. 389 

PAGE 

Remark on the instances in which one of these rules is not ob- 
served 23g 

Of the personal pronouns in their various uses ! .' [ 238 
Of the personal pronouns used instead of the possessive adjec- 
tives .240 

Of the English pronoun it ...... 242 

Of the French pronoun le . . . . [ I 243 

Directions to distinguish between the use of le, without gender or 
number, and that of the personal pronouns le, la, les, before 

the verb etre 244 

Of the different uses of the pronouns en and y . . , 245 

Of the English adjective some or any, when not followed by a 

noum • 246 

General rule upon the pronoun en ..... 247 

Of the English pronouns one and ones 249 

Of the pronoun en supplying the place of possessive adjectives 250 
Of possessive pronouns . . . . . . . 251 

Rule showing when to represent the possessive adjectives by the 

personal pronoun preceded by the preposition a . . 252 

Of the relative pronouns 253 

Cases in which lequel is to be used instead of qui . . 255 

Of the pronoun dont 255 

Of ok used as a relative pronoun ...... 256 

Rules on the relative pronouns ...... 257 

Of absolute and interrogative pronouns ..... 258 

Of the use of quoi and which ....... 259 

Of the absolute or interrogative pronoun whose . . . 260 

Of the demonstrative pronoun 261 

Rules on the use of the demonstrative pronoun . . .261 

Rule on the words the latter, the former 263 

Rule on the use of ci and la after nouns 263 

Rule on the manner of translating into French this, that, these, 

those, used in pointing out objects .... 264 
Of indefinite pronouns. Those that are never joined to a sub- 
stantive . . . 264 

Of quelquhm, quelquhme, tyc, some, some one, some few . 265 
Of personne, nobody, and chacnn, chacune, each, &c. . . 266 
On the use of the possessive adjective after chacnn . . 266 
Of quiconque, whoever, and rien, nothing .... 267 
The indefinite pronouns which are always joined to a substan- 
tive . 268 

Of quelque, some ; quelconque, whatever, any, &c. . . . 268 
Those which are sometimes joined to a substantive, and sometimes 

not . . . . 270 

Of nut, aucun, pas un, fyc. 270 

Of autre, other ; Vun, V autre, one another; and mime, same . 271 

Ottel, such .272 

Of plusieurs, several ; and tout, toute, «$•<;., all, every, every thing 273 
Of those which are followed by que . . . . • 275 

Chapter V.— Of the verbs. Agreement of the verb with its 

nominative ,,,,,.•• 277 



390 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Of collective nouns, or nouns of multitude .... 279 
Of the collective-general nominatives to the verb . . . 280 
Of the collective-partitive nominative to the verb • . . 280 

Of the place of the nominative 281 

Of the place of the objective . 283 

Of the use of the tenses of the French verbs .... 284 

Of the infinitive mood 284 

Rules on the present participle 285 

Rules on the past participle 287 

Of the indicative mood. Present tense .... 290 

Of the imperfect and preterit, definite and indefinite . .291 

Of the imperfect tense 291 

Of the preterit definite 292 

Of the preterit indefinite, or compound tense of the present . 293 
Comparison between the imperfect, preterit definite, and preterit 

indefinite 

Of the pluperfect and preterit anterior 

Of the tense called preterit anterior indefinite, or sur-compound 

Of the future simple and future anterior 

Of the conditional mood .... 

Of the imperative mood .... 

Of the subjunctive mood .... 

Important remark on this subject 

Of the use of the tenses of the subjunctive mood 

Of the subjunctive mood after conjunctions 

Observations on different verbs 

Of the verb falloir, and the English auxiliary must 

Of the verb vouloir, and the auxiliary will and would 

Of the verb devoir, and the auxiliaries, shall, should, and ought to 

Of the verb pouvoir, and the auxiliaries, can and could, may and 

might 

Of the French verb laisser, and the English verb to let 

Remarks on savoir and /aire 321 

Chapter VI. — Of the participle 321 

Of the present participle .321 

Of the past participle . . . . . . . 323 

Cases in which the agreement of the past participle might present 

some difficulty 

Rules on the same subject ....... 

Chapter VII.— Of the preposition 

Remarks on some prepositions 

Continuation on the same subject 

Of the articles after prepositions • . . . 
Observations on some English prepositions 
On the prepositions de, &, and pour . ,.-. . . . 
A list of the verbs which require no preposition before an infini- 
tive 

A list of verbs which have the person for indirect objective, and 

the thing for direct objective ^ 

A list of verbs which require the preposition de before a verb , 
A list of verbs which require the preposition a before an infinitive 



294 
298 
299 
300 
301 
302 
303 
307 
308 
311 
313 
313 
315 
316 

318 
320 



325 
327 
329 
329 
332 
332 
334 
335 

337 

338 
339 
340 



CONTENTS. 



391 



Verbs followed by de or a before an infinitive 
Verbs which require de before a noun 
Verbs which require a before a noun . 

Verbs used with or without a before nouns 
Verbs used with de or a before nouns 
Rule on some of the uses of the preposition de 
Chapter VIII.— Of the adverbs 
Remarks on some adverbs 
Of the degrees of significations of adverbs 
Of the negative and restrictive adverbs 
Of the negatives ne pas and point 
Chapter IX. — Of the conjunctions 

PART III. 

French and English idioms . . . 

Of the verbs avoir and etre . 

Cases in which to be is translated by avoir 

Gallicisms construed with avoir . ... 

Of the impersonal verb y avoir .... 

On void and voila 

Expressions of time with y avoir and depuis 

General remarks on this subject 

Of expressions of distance . . . . . 

Gallicisms construed with etre .... 

Gallicisms construed with faire .... 

Of /aire used impersonally . . 

Gallicisms construed with prendre . . . . 

Gallicisms construed with rendre, mettre, and changer 
Of the verbs alter and venir ..... 

Of the verbs penser, valoir mieux, and y voir 

Of the gallicisms construed with que 

Phrases on some gallicisms . . . . • . 

Remarks on French construction -, 

Observations on some French verbs compared with the English 

Of some English verbs ...... 

Of the English auxiliaries used alone 
.Explanations on some verbs which may present difficulty 
A list of English phrases which require particular attention 
Manner of expressing the hours in French 
Vocabulary 



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